tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-34199077125187649912023-11-16T07:39:48.158-08:00Techno-Worldnidhin with youhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05193232493654918975noreply@blogger.comBlogger30125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3419907712518764991.post-31961101428356596622011-12-08T07:10:00.000-08:002011-12-08T07:11:05.476-08:00Magnetic levitation<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div align="left" class="SubHeadings" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: left;"><u><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><strong>INTRODUCTION</strong></span></u></div><div align="left" class="SubHeadings" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: left;"><br />
</div><div align="left" class="SubHeadings" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal;"></span><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Magnetic levitation is the latest in transportation technology and has been the interest of many countries around the world. The idea has been around since 1904 when Robert Goddard, an American Rocket scientist, created a theory that trains could be lifted off the tracks by the use of electromagnetic rails. Many assumptions and ideas were brought about throughout the following years, but it was not until the 1970’s that Japan and Germany showed interest in it and began researching and designing.</span></div><div align="left" class="SubHeadings" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 1; tab-stops: 0in; text-align: left; text-indent: 0.25in;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEzGFlw3SKn_yL3emn956gBQX86_ntqW33CWlwME-c_919_rxQkPnzq0VgP_bWhZP6E-8GvOV4iSWf9O2ImaG4QML9XwVbKSiJoFLUFs_Xfiv8Wr0uRa1HNsvrTVKYkXR0dQeBLHjxz2Xn/s1600/mg.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="335" mda="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEzGFlw3SKn_yL3emn956gBQX86_ntqW33CWlwME-c_919_rxQkPnzq0VgP_bWhZP6E-8GvOV4iSWf9O2ImaG4QML9XwVbKSiJoFLUFs_Xfiv8Wr0uRa1HNsvrTVKYkXR0dQeBLHjxz2Xn/s400/mg.png" width="400" /></a><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span>The motion of the Maglev train is based purely on magnetism and magnetic fields. This magnetic field is produced by using high-powered electromagnets. By using magnetic fields, the Maglev train can be levitated above its track, or guide way, and propelled forward. Wheels, contact with the track, and moving parts are eliminated on the Maglev train, allowing the Maglev train to essentially move on air without friction.</span></div><div align="left" class="SubHeadings" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 1; tab-stops: 0in; text-align: left; text-indent: 0.25in;"><br />
</div><div class="SubHeadings" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 1; tab-stops: 0in; text-indent: 0.25in;"><br />
</div><div class="SubHeadings" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span>Maglev can be used for both low and high speed transportation. The low speed Maglev is used for short distance travel. Birmingham, England used this low speed transportation between the years of 1984 and 1995. However, engineers are more interested in creating the high-speed Maglev vehicles. The higher speed vehicle can travel at speeds of nearly 343mph or 552 km/h. Magnetic Levitation mainly uses two different types of suspension, which are Electromagnetic Suspension and Electrodynamics Suspension. However, a third suspension system (Intuctrack) has recently been developed and is in the research and design phase. These suspension systems are what keep the train levitated off the track.</span></div><div class="SubHeadings" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.25in;"><br />
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<div class="SectionHeading" style="margin: 6pt 0in; mso-outline-level: 1;"><u><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt;"><strong>PROPULSION SYSTEM</strong></span></u></div><div class="SectionHeading" style="margin: 6pt 0in; mso-outline-level: 1;"><br />
</div><div class="SectionHeading" style="margin: 6pt 0in; mso-outline-level: 1;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%;">Electrodynamics Propulsion is the basis of the movement in a Maglev system. The basic principle that electromagnetic propulsion follows is that “opposite poles attract each other and like poles repel each other”. This meaning that the north pole of a magnet will repel the north pole of a magnet while it attracts the south pole of a magnet. Likewise, the south pole of a magnet will attract</span><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 8pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%;">the north pole and repel the south pole of a magnet. It is important to realize these three major components of this propulsion system. They are:</span></div><div class="Bullets" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">A large electrical power source </span></div><div class="Bullets" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Metal coils that line the entire guide way</span></div><div class="Bullets" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Guidance magnets used for alignment</span></div><div class="Bullets" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-list: none; tab-stops: 22.5pt;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span></span><span lang="PT-BR" style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">The Maglev system does not run by using a conventional engine or fossil fuels. The interaction between the electromagnets and guideway is the actual motor of the Maglev system. To understand how Maglev works without a motor, we will first introduce the basics of a traditional motor. A motor normally has two main parts, a stator and a rotor. The outer part of the motor is stationary and is called the stator. The stator contains the primary windings of the motor. The polarity in the stator is able to rapidly change from north and south. The inner part of the motor is known as the rotor, which rotates because of the outer stator. The secondary windings are located within the rotor. A current is applied to the secondary wingings of the rotor from<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>a voltage in the stator that is caused by a magnetic force in the primary windings.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As a result, the rotor is able to rotate.</span></div><div class="SubHeadings" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span>Now that we have an understanding of how motors work, we can describe how Maglev uses a variation on the basic ideas of a motor. Although not an actual motor, the Maglev’s propulsion system uses an electric synchronous motor or a linear synchronous motor. The Maglev system works in the same general way the compact motor does, except it is linear, “meaning it is stretched as far as the track goes”. The stators of the Maglev system are usually in the guiderails, whereas the rotors are located within the electromagnetic system on the train. The sections of track that contain the stators are known as stator packs. This linear motor is essential to any Maglev system. The picture below gives an idea of where the stator pack and motor windings are located.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg2CGpCRnwG7f2tdCwCNpYYgfd3jHznH1opIQJk0kePXRRUuftdB2yVBHsbgHPMmMDxC4wFBmBPv3kr0XTtVQE8gHD2XzNC8W_zdnyxCoqFAsiOUnlmKmYXuXSccpQolHmQ1UN_H7EDoas2/s1600/mg.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" mda="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg2CGpCRnwG7f2tdCwCNpYYgfd3jHznH1opIQJk0kePXRRUuftdB2yVBHsbgHPMmMDxC4wFBmBPv3kr0XTtVQE8gHD2XzNC8W_zdnyxCoqFAsiOUnlmKmYXuXSccpQolHmQ1UN_H7EDoas2/s1600/mg.png" /></a><span lang="PT-BR" style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span lang="PT-BR" style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span><span lang="PT-BR" style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">The guideway for Maglev systems is made up of magnetized coils, for both levitation and propulsion, and the stator packs. “An alternating current is then produced, from the large power source, and passes through the guideway, creating an electromagnetic field which travels down the rails”. As defined by the Encarta Online dictionary, an alternating current is “a current that reverses direction.” The strength of this current can be made much greater than the normal strength of a magnet by increasing the number of winds in the coils. The current in the guideway must be alternating so the polarity in the magnetized coils can change. The alternating current allows a pull from the magnetic field in front of the train, and a push from the magnetic field behind the train. This push and pull motion work together allowing the train to reach maximum velocities well over 300 miles per hour. </span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhf2Kv1lJ7GzxYmmbmVrok1xIGPzPI4cr3LOaSiY1mCS3GhKm4m8lC8XQhc7FFrq67CsoIVZrPvH8MtMaNlO6gkyeB8vTtHpsw_rnhiQIt4fcuzg5twnlIYSxnGQJREuCBToqnTJRg6j2wS/s1600/mg.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="267" mda="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhf2Kv1lJ7GzxYmmbmVrok1xIGPzPI4cr3LOaSiY1mCS3GhKm4m8lC8XQhc7FFrq67CsoIVZrPvH8MtMaNlO6gkyeB8vTtHpsw_rnhiQIt4fcuzg5twnlIYSxnGQJREuCBToqnTJRg6j2wS/s320/mg.png" width="320" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span lang="PT-BR" style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">This propulsion is unique in that the current is able to be turned on and off quickly. Therefore, at one instance there can be a positive charge running through a section of the track, and within a second it could have a neutral charge. This is the basic principle behind slowing the vehicle down and breaking it. The current through the guiderails is reversed causing the train to slow, and eventually to competely stop. Additionally, by reversing the current, the train would go in the reverse direction. This propulsion system gives the train enough power to accelerate and decelerate fairly quickly, allowing the train to easily climb steep hills.</span></div><div class="Bullets" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-list: none; tab-stops: 22.5pt; text-indent: 0.25in;"><span lang="PT-BR" style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span>The levitation, guidance, and propulsion of the electromagnetic suspension system must work together in order for the Maglev train to move. All of the magnetic forces are computer controlled to provide a safe and hazard free ride. The propulsion system works hand in hand with the suspension system on the Maglev system.</span></div><div class="Bullets" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-list: none; tab-stops: 22.5pt; text-indent: 0.25in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoTitle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><u><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt;"><strong>MAGNETIC LEVITATION SYSTEM</strong></span></u></div><div class="MsoTitle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
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</div><div class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Magnetic levitation means “to rise and float in air”. The Maglev system is made possible by the use of electromagnets and magnetic fields. The basic principle behind Maglev is that if you put two magnets together in a certain way there will be a strong magnetic attraction and the two magnets will clamp together. This is called "attraction". If one of those magnets is flipped over then there will be a strong magnetic repulsion and the magnets will push each other apart. This is called "repulsion". Now imagine a long line of magnets alternatively placed along a track. And a line of alternatively placed magnets on the bottom of the train. If these magnets are properly controlled the trains will lift of the ground by the magnetic repulsion or magnetic attraction. On the basis of this principle, Magnetic Levitation is broken into two main types of suspension or levitation, </span></div><div class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">1. Electromagnetic Suspension.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">2. Electrodynamic Suspension.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A third type of levitation, known an Inductrack, is also being developed in the United States.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="SectionHeading" style="margin: 6pt 0in; mso-outline-level: 1;"><u><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt;"><strong>ELECTROMAGNETIC SUSPENSION SYSTEM(EMS)</strong></span></u></div><div class="SectionHeading" style="margin: 6pt 0in; mso-outline-level: 1;"><br />
</div><div class="SubHeadings" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Electromagnetic Suspension or EMS is the first of the two main types of suspension used with Maglev. This suspension uses conventional electromagnets located on structures attached to the underside of the train; these structures then wrap around a T-shaped guiderail. This guiderail is ferromagnetic, meaning it is made up of such metals as iron, nickel, and cobalt, and has very high magnetic permeability. The magnets on the train are then attracted towards this ferromagnetic</span><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 8pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%;">guiderail when a “current runs through the guiderail and the electromagnets of the train are turned on”. This attraction lifts the car allowing it to levitate and move with a frictionless ride. “Vehicle levitation is analyzed via on board computer control units that sample and adjust the magnetic force of a series of onboard electromagnets as they are attracted to the guideway”.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgIk6ATkhStUb5gixlMzhESshyC82POiEUrsK5YAJDE0TWIxHihqC8vX1Jsqvm8XEuMRT87VHmTvPxxHZu1tm_PUFtqUh0E7fBrxW_0LNHeAjnBYj_www9hjIigTa68tyNfQkpA22KjPd3k/s1600/mg.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="266" mda="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgIk6ATkhStUb5gixlMzhESshyC82POiEUrsK5YAJDE0TWIxHihqC8vX1Jsqvm8XEuMRT87VHmTvPxxHZu1tm_PUFtqUh0E7fBrxW_0LNHeAjnBYj_www9hjIigTa68tyNfQkpA22KjPd3k/s320/mg.png" width="320" /></a></div><div class="SubHeadings" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%;">The small distance of about 10mm needs to be constantly monitored in order to avoid contact between the train’s rails and the guiderail. This distance is also monitored by computers, which will automatically adjust the strength of the magnetic force to bring this distance back to around 10mm, if needed. This small elevation distance and the constant need for monitoring the Electromagnetic Suspension System is one of its major downfalls.</span></div><div class="SubHeadings" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br />
</div><div class="SubHeadings" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%;">The train also needs a way to stay centered above the guideway. To do this, guidance coils and sensors are placed on each side of the train’s structures to keep it centered at all points during its ride, including turns. Again, the gap should be around 10mm, so computers are used to control the current running through the guidance magnets and keep the gap steady. In addition to guidance, these magnets also allow the train to tilt, pitch, and roll during turns. To keep all distances regulated during the ride, the magnets work together with sensors to keep the train centered. However, the guidance magnets and levitation magnets work independently.</span></div><div class="SubHeadings" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%;">There are several advantages to this system. First, the train interlocks with the guiderail making it impossible to derail. Noise is extremely limited with this system because there is no contact between the train and its track. In addition, there aren’t many moving parts, which reduces the noise and maintenance of the system. With fewer parts, there is less wear and tear on the system. The Maglev train is also able to travel on “steep gradients and tight curves”. Figure [4] shows the metal beams which attach to the underside of the train. An example of Electromagnetic Suspension is shown in Figure [5] below. Before a Maglev system can be made, a choice must be made between using this type of suspension or Electrodynamic Suspension.</span></div><div class="SubHeadings" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br />
</div><div class="SectionHeading" style="margin: 6pt 0in; mso-outline-level: 1;"><strong><u><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt;">ELECTRODYNAMIC SUSPENSION SYSTEM</span></u></strong></div><div class="SectionHeading" style="margin: 6pt 0in; mso-outline-level: 1;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">The second of the two main types of suspension systems in use is the Electrodynamic Suspension (EDS). EDS uses superconducting magnets (SCM) located on the bottom of the train to levitate it off of the track. By using super cooled superconducting magnets, the electrical resistance in superconductors allows current to flow better and creates a greater magnetic field. The downside to using an EDS system is that it requires the SCMs to be at very cold temperatures, usually around 5 K (-268ºC) to get the best results and the least resistance in the coils. The Japanese Maglev, which is based on an EDS system, uses a cooling system of liquid nitrogen and helium. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">To understand what’s really going on here, let’s start from the inside out. The first major difference between EDS and EMS is the type of track. Whereas with EMS the bottom of the train hooks around the edges of the track, an EDS train literally floats on air, as shown in the figure</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgU1_NdythtY2Kjd8DdWQb7_Q6cyE2Qg7Qg9hKk8mdzWL_hz2biBpX2eVaUtL4GqgFv3vUtuTM1zC6FSr8x3QrsxBZAfnkiQ1wCvtmqhfMKX4vu4y784n_VAZGlWDnXCuIQUoc3rO5TD4Ph/s1600/mg.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="244" mda="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgU1_NdythtY2Kjd8DdWQb7_Q6cyE2Qg7Qg9hKk8mdzWL_hz2biBpX2eVaUtL4GqgFv3vUtuTM1zC6FSr8x3QrsxBZAfnkiQ1wCvtmqhfMKX4vu4y784n_VAZGlWDnXCuIQUoc3rO5TD4Ph/s320/mg.png" width="320" /></a><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 8pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><shapetype coordsize="21600,21600" filled="f" id="_x0000_t75" o:preferrelative="t" o:spt="75" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" stroked="f"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">The outside guides act like the cushions used to prevent gutter balls in bowling only an EDS train has a magnetic safety net to keep the train centered, unlike your traditional bowling ally. If the train is knocked in the horizontal direction, the field on the side it shifts to becomes greater and the field on the opposite side weakens due to this increase in distance. Therefore, in order to restore equal magnetic forces from each side, the train is pushed back into the center of the guideway and the strength of the magnetic fields reduces to their normal strength. This is one reason why EDS is a much more stable suspension system. A second reason why the Electrodynamic Suspension system is more stable is that it is able to carry a much heavier weight load without having its levitation greatly affected. As the gap between the train and vehicle decreases, forces between the SCMs located on the train and the magnets on the track repel each other and increase as the train gets heavier. For example, if weight is added to the train, it is going to want to get closer to the track; however it cannot do so because repulsion forces grow stronger as the poles on the train sink closer to the similar poles on the guideway. The repulsive forces between the magnets and coils lift the train, on average, about 4 to 6 inches above the track, which virtually eliminates any safety issues regarding the train losing levitation and hitting its guideway.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This brings us to the next thing we encounter as we move out from the center of the guideway. Levitation coils repel the SCMs underneath the train, providing the restoring forces to keep the train aligned. </span></shapetype></span> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Propulsion coils are located next. The propulsion system of the Electrodynamic Suspension system is quite similar to Electromagnetic propulsion, but does vary slightly. To propel the train, the guideway has coils running along the top and bottom of the SCMs. Induced current within these coils creates alternating magnetic fields that attract or repel the SCMs, sending the train in the forward or reverse direction. Because the trains are moving by magnetic waves that push and pull it forward, it’s virtually impossible for trains to collide since they are in essence “riding the same magnetic waves”. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">No engine or other power source is required to keep the train moving except the initial speed that is required to begin levitation. Therefore wheels are required to keep the train moving until about 100 km/hr (65 mph) where it can then begin to levitate. </span></div><div class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Finally, the guideway has rails that encompass the outside of the train. Within these rails are the propulsion coils and levitation coils needed to keep the train moving and levitating above the bottom of the track. Because the train has its own safety net of magnetic force to keep it centered, the rails simply provide a place for other coils to be located and used. This railway provides no other means of support for the train since the bulk of the train is floating above the entire track.</span><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><stroke joinstyle="miter"></stroke><formulas><f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0"></f><f eqn="sum @0 1 0"></f><f eqn="sum 0 0 @1"></f><f eqn="prod @2 1 2"></f><f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelWidth"></f><f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelHeight"></f><f eqn="sum @0 0 1"></f><f eqn="prod @6 1 2"></f><f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelWidth"></f><f eqn="sum @8 21600 0"></f><f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelHeight"></f><f eqn="sum @10 21600 0"></f></formulas><path gradientshapeok="t" o:connecttype="rect" o:extrusionok="f"></path><lock aspectratio="t" v:ext="edit"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.25in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">EDS suspension has several positive and negative aspects to it. To begin, initial costs are high and most countries do not have the money or feel the need to spend it on this kind of transportation. Once up and running however, an EDS Maglev runs only on electricity so there is no need for other fuels. This reduction in fuel will prove to be very important to the sustainability of Maglev. One huge disadvantage of the EDS system is the great cost and inconvenience of having to keep the super cooled superconductive magnets at 5K. Another drawback is that in the event of a power failure, a Maglev train using EDS would slam onto the track at great speeds. This is a second reason for the wheels that are primarily used to get the train moving quickly enough for levitation. The wheels would need to have a shock system designed to compensate for the weight of the car and its passengers as the train falls to the track. In Japan, where EDS Maglev is in its testing stage, trains average about<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>300 km/hr and have been clocked at 552 km/hr, which is a world record for rail speed. Compared to Amtrak trains in the United States, which travel at an average of<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>130 km/hr, Maglev can get people where they need in about half of the time. The EMS and EDS suspension systems are the two main systems in use, but there is a possibility for a third to soon join the pack.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><u><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt;"><strong>A NEW TRACK IN THE RUNNING</strong></span></u></div><div class="SectionHeading" style="margin: 8pt 0in; mso-outline-level: 1;"><br />
</div><div class="SubHeadings" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%;">Engineers are constantly trying to improve on previous technology. Within the past few years the United States has been developing a newer style of Maglev called the Inductrack, which is similar to the EDS system. This system is being developed by </span><i><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><strong>Dr. Richard Post</strong></span></i><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%;"> at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. The major difference between the Inductrack and the Electrodymanic System is the use of permanent magnets rather than superconducting magnets.</span></div><div class="SubHeadings" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%;">This system uses an “arrangement of powerful permanent magnets, known as a Halbach array, to create the levitating force”. The Halbach array uses high field alloy magnetic bars. These bars are arranged so the magnetic fields of the bars are at 90º angles to the bars on either side, which causes a high powered magnetic field below the array.</span></div><div class="SubHeadings" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%;">The Inductrack is similar to that of the EDS system in that it uses repulsive forces. The magnetic field of the Halbach array on the train repels the magnetic field of the moving Halbach array in the guideway. The rails in the system are slightly different. The guideway is made from “two rows of tightly packed levitation coils”. The train itself has two Halbach arrays; one above the coils for levitation and the other for guidance. As with the EMS and EDS system, the Inductrack uses a linear synchronous motor. Below is a picture of the Halbach array and a model of the Inductrack system.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiSjKHEoP53vyOrGCwYJCUtgIUJUEuV3H7KMYl0kB17k9TNk7k38g0iUw0EwbblF8VEZAZSC4T2xVfgZ3hTKO5USfFiiugTql2gk4x25emhyphenhyphenjwW2ZSsuYxIM4A8KHvX6dmu0AT4KSH9zW75/s1600/mg.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="179" mda="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiSjKHEoP53vyOrGCwYJCUtgIUJUEuV3H7KMYl0kB17k9TNk7k38g0iUw0EwbblF8VEZAZSC4T2xVfgZ3hTKO5USfFiiugTql2gk4x25emhyphenhyphenjwW2ZSsuYxIM4A8KHvX6dmu0AT4KSH9zW75/s320/mg.png" width="320" /></a></div><div class="SubHeadings" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"></div><div class="SubHeadings" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: justify; text-indent: 13.5pt;"><br />
</div><div class="SubHeadings" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%;">A major benefit of this track is that even if a power failure occurs, the train can continue to levitate because of the use of permanent magnets. As a result, the train is able to slow to a stop during instances of power failure. In addition, the train is able to levitate without any power source involved. The only power needed for this system is for the linear synchronous motor and “the only power loss that occurs in this system is from aerodynamic drag and electrical resistance in the levitation circuits”.</span></div><div class="SubHeadings" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%;">Although this type of track is looking to be used, it has only been tested once on a 20-meter track. NASA is working together with the Inductrack team to build a larger test model of 100 meters in length. This testing could eventually lead to a “workable Maglev system for the future”. The Inductrack system could also be used for the launching of NASA’s space shuttles. The following picture displays side by side all three types of levitation systems. </span></div><div class="SubHeadings" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: justify; text-indent: 13.5pt;"><br />
</div><div class="SubHeadings" style="margin: 6pt 0in; mso-outline-level: 1;"><u><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt;"><strong>LATERAL GUIDANCE SYSTEMS</strong></span></u></div><div class="SubHeadings" style="margin: 6pt 0in; mso-outline-level: 1;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">The Lateral guidance systems control the train’s ability to actually stay on the track. It stabilized the movement of the train from moving left and right of the train track by using the system of electromagnets found in the undercarriage of the MagLev train. The placement of the electromagnets in conjunction with a computer control system ensures that the train does not deviate more than 10mm from the actual train tracks. </span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjz6II4RBDDj9v7Ed6QqlofTVHjNP06hMHQdp2XTcZ-e7HAWwye-tZ50lfdL0jinlwbxI-uBpDx6JV1uD3ix8DWk-8rRKGDlx1vCeDh3U8t8xPjos5f_meZ0jV_MKngbnfWP-Fp4s5hIs-n/s1600/mg.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" mda="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjz6II4RBDDj9v7Ed6QqlofTVHjNP06hMHQdp2XTcZ-e7HAWwye-tZ50lfdL0jinlwbxI-uBpDx6JV1uD3ix8DWk-8rRKGDlx1vCeDh3U8t8xPjos5f_meZ0jV_MKngbnfWP-Fp4s5hIs-n/s400/mg.png" width="326" /></a></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">The lateral guidance system used in the Japanese electrodynamic suspension system is able to use one “set of four superconducting magnets” to control lateral guidance from the magnetic propulsion of the null flux coils located on the guideways of the track as shown in Fig.[10]. Coils are used frequently in the design of MagLev trains because the magnetic fields created are perpendicular to the electric current, thus making<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the magnetic fields stronger. The Japanese Lateral Guidance system also uses a semi-active suspension system. This system dampens the effect of the side to side vibrations of the train car and allows for more comfortable train rides.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This stable lateral motion caused from the magnetic propulsion is a joint operation from the acceleration sensor, control devive, to the actual air spring that dampens the lateral motion of the train car. </span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText2" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">The lateral guidance system found in the German transrapid system(EMS) is similar to the Japanese model. In a combination of attraction and repulsion, the MagLev train is able to remain centered on the railway. Once again levitation coils are used to control lateral movement in the German MagLev suspension system. The levitation coils are connected on both sides of the guideway and have opposite poles. The opposites poles of the guideway cause a repulsive force on one side of the train while creating an attractive force on the other side of the train. The location of the electromagnets on the Transrapid system is located in a different side of the guideways. To obtain electro magnetic suspension, the Transrapid system uses “the attractive forces between iron-core electromagnets and ferromagnetic rails.”<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> </b><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">In addition to guidance, these magnets also allow the train to tilt, pitch, and roll during turns. To keep all distances regulated during the ride, the magnets work together with sensors to keep the train centered.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
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</div><div class="MsoTitle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><strong><u><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 8pt;">.</span></u><u><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt;">ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF MAGLEV</span></u></strong></div><div class="MsoTitle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div align="left" class="MsoTitle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: left;"><u><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt;"><strong>ADVANTAGES<span style="color: black;"></span></strong></span></u></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><u><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"><strong>Magnetic Fields</strong></span></u></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Intensity of magnetic field effects of Maglev is extremely low (below everyday household devices)</span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Hair dryer, toaster, or sewing machine produce stronger magnetic fields</span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><b><u><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Energy Consumption</span></u></b></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Maglev uses 30% less energy than a highspeed train traveling at the same speed. (1/3 more power for the same amount of energy)</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"></div><table border="1" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="margin: auto auto auto 1in; mso-cellspacing: 1.5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 350px;"><tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;"><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom: #f0f0f0; border-left: #f0f0f0; border-right: #f0f0f0; border-top: #f0f0f0; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in; width: 40%;" width="40%"><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"> Speed</span></div></td><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom: #f0f0f0; border-left: #f0f0f0; border-right: #f0f0f0; border-top: #f0f0f0; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in; width: 31%;" width="31%"><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"> ICE Train</span></div></td><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom: #f0f0f0; border-left: #f0f0f0; border-right: #f0f0f0; border-top: #f0f0f0; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in; width: 29%;" width="29%"><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"> Maglev Train</span></div></td></tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;"><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom: #f0f0f0; border-left: #f0f0f0; border-right: #f0f0f0; border-top: #f0f0f0; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;"><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"> 200 km/hr</span></div></td><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom: #f0f0f0; border-left: #f0f0f0; border-right: #f0f0f0; border-top: #f0f0f0; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;"><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"> 32 Wh/km</span></div></td><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom: #f0f0f0; border-left: #f0f0f0; border-right: #f0f0f0; border-top: #f0f0f0; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;"><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"> 32 Wh/km</span></div></td></tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 2;"><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom: #f0f0f0; border-left: #f0f0f0; border-right: #f0f0f0; border-top: #f0f0f0; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;"><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"> 250 km/hr</span></div></td><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom: #f0f0f0; border-left: #f0f0f0; border-right: #f0f0f0; border-top: #f0f0f0; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;"><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"> 44 Wh/km</span></div></td><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom: #f0f0f0; border-left: #f0f0f0; border-right: #f0f0f0; border-top: #f0f0f0; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;"><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"> 37 Wh/km</span></div></td></tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 3;"><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom: #f0f0f0; border-left: #f0f0f0; border-right: #f0f0f0; border-top: #f0f0f0; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;"><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%;"> 300 km/hr</span></div></td><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom: #f0f0f0; border-left: #f0f0f0; border-right: #f0f0f0; border-top: #f0f0f0; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;"><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"> 71 Wh/km</span></div></td><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom: #f0f0f0; border-left: #f0f0f0; border-right: #f0f0f0; border-top: #f0f0f0; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;"><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"> 47 Wh/km</span></div></td></tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 4; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;"><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom: #f0f0f0; border-left: #f0f0f0; border-right: #f0f0f0; border-top: #f0f0f0; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;"><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"> 400 km/hr</span></div></td><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom: #f0f0f0; border-left: #f0f0f0; border-right: #f0f0f0; border-top: #f0f0f0; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;"><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%;"> -</span></div></td><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom: #f0f0f0; border-left: #f0f0f0; border-right: #f0f0f0; border-top: #f0f0f0; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;"><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">71 Wh/km</span></div></td></tr>
</tbody></table><br />
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><b><u><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Noise Levels</span></u></b></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">No noise caused by wheel rolling or engine</span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Maglev noise is lost among general ambient noise</span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">At 100m - Maglev produces noise at 69 dB</span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 5pt 0.5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">At 100m - Typical city center road traffic is 80 dB</span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><b><u><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Vibrations</span></u></b></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Just below human threshold of perception<b><u></u></b></span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><b><u><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Power Supply</span></u></b></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 5pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">110kV lines fed separately via two substations</span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><b><u><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Power Failure</span></u></b></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 5pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Batteries on board automatically are activated to bring car to next station</span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 5pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Batteries charged continuously</span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><b><u><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Fire Resistance of vehicles</span></u></b></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 5pt 0.5in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Latest non-PVC material used that is non-combustible and poor transmitter of heat</span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 5pt 0.5in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Maglev vehicle carries no fuel to increase fire hazard</span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><b><u><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Safety</span></u></b></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 5pt 0.5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">20 times safer than an airplane</span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 5pt 0.5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">250 times safer than other conventional railways</span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 5pt 0.5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">700 times safer than travel by road</span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 5pt 0.5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Collision is impossible because only sections of the track are activated as needed. The vehicles always travel in synchronization and at the same speed, further reducing the chances of a crash.</span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><b><u><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Operation Costs</span></u></b></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 5pt 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Virtually no wear. Main cause of mechanical wear is friction. Magnetic Levitation requires no contact, and hence no friction.</span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 5pt 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Components normally subjected to mechanical wear are on the whole replaced by electronic components which do not suffer any wear</span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 5pt 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Specific energy consumption is less than all other comparable means of transportation.</span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 5pt 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Faster train turnaround time means fewer vehicles</span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 5pt 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><br />
</div><div style="line-height: 150%;"><b><u><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">LIMITATIONS</span></u></b></div><div style="line-height: 150%;"><br />
</div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">There are several disadvantages with maglev trains. Maglev guide paths are bound to be more costly than conventional steel railways. The other main disadvantage is lack with existing infrastructure. For example if a high speed line </span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">between two cities it built, then high speed trains can serve both cities but more importantly they can serve other nearby cities by running on normal railways that branch off the high speed line. The high speed trains could go for a fast run on the high speed line, then come off it for the rest of the journey. Maglev trains wouldn't be able to do that, they would be limited to where maglev lines run. This would mean it would be very difficult to make construction of maglev lines commercially viable unless there were two very large destinations being connected. Of the 5000km that TGV trains serve in France, only about 1200km is high speed line, meaning 75% of TGV services run on existing track. The fact that a maglev train will not be able to continue beyond</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%;"> its track may seriously hinder its usefulness.</span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><h4 align="left" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: left;"><u><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;">A possible solution</span></span></u></h4><h4 align="left" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: left;"><u><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"></span></span></u> </h4><div style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Although it is not seen anywhere a solution could be to put normal steel wheels onto the bottom of a maglev train, which would allow it to run on normal railway once it was off the floating guideway</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%;">.</span><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoTitle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><u><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt;"><strong>CONCLUSION</strong></span></u></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="FirstParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span lang="PT-BR" style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Railways using MagLev technology are on the horizon. They have proven to be faster than traditional railway systems that use metal wheels and rails and are slowed by friction. The low maintenance of the MagLev is an advantage that should not be taken lightly. When you don’t have to deal with the wear and tear of contact friction you gain greater longevity of the vehicle. Energy saved by not using motors running on fossil fuels allow more energy efficiency and environmental friendliness.</span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Maglev will have a positive impact on sustainability. Using superconducting magnets instead of fossil fuels, it will not emit greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Energy created by magnetic fields can be easily replenished. The track of a Maglev train is small compared to those of a conventional train and are elevated above the ground so the track itself will not have a large effect on the topography of a region. Since a Maglev train levitates above the track, it will experience no mechanical wear and thus will require very little maintenance.</span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana", "sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Overall, the sustainability of Maglev is very positive. Although the relative costs of constructing Maglev trains are still expensive, there are many other positive factors that overshadow this. Maglev will contribute more to our society and our planet than it takes away. Considering everything Maglev has to offer, the transportation of our future and our children’s future is on very capable tracks.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"></div></lock></div>nidhin with youhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05193232493654918975noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3419907712518764991.post-70383769141471544442011-12-08T06:28:00.001-08:002011-12-08T06:28:32.848-08:00wavelet processing technology<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"></div>nidhin with youhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05193232493654918975noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3419907712518764991.post-6836051271305484902011-12-08T06:16:00.000-08:002011-12-08T06:16:09.510-08:00VIEW OF 4G MOBILE AND WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-outline-level: 1;"><b><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Times-BoldItalic; mso-bidi-language: TH;">ABSTRACT</span></u></b><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Times-Italic; mso-bidi-language: TH;"></span></u></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Times-Italic; mso-bidi-language: TH;">Due to the increase in demand for speed, multimedia support and other resources, the wireless world is looking forward for a new generation technology to replace the third generation. This is where the fourth generation wireless communication comes into play. 4G wireless communication is expected to provide better speed, high capacity, lower cost and IP based services. The main aim of 4G wireless is to replace the current core technology with a single universal technology based on IP. Yet there are several challenges that inhibit the progress of 4G and researchers throughout the world are contributing their ideas to solve these challenges. This project deals with understanding the features and challenges, the proposed architectural frameworks, multimedia support and multiple access schemes for 4G</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Times-Roman; mso-bidi-language: TH;">.</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Times-Italic; mso-bidi-language: TH;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in;"><br />
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</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in;"><b><u><span style="color: black; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">INTRODUCTION</span></u></b><span style="color: black; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /><b><u></u></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Consumers demand more from their technology. Whether it is a television, cellular phone, or refrigerator, the latest technology purchase must have new features. With the advent of the Internet, the most-wanted feature is better, faster access to information. Cellular subscribers pay extra on top of their basic bills for such features as instant messaging, stock quotes, and even Internet access right on their phones. But that is far from the limit of features; manufacturers entice customers to buy new phones with photo and even video capability. It is no longer a quantum leap to envision a time when access to all necessary information the power of a personal computer , sits in the palm of one’s hand. To support such a powerful system, we need pervasive, high-speed wireless connectivity. <br />
A number of technologies currently exist to provide users with high-speed digital wireless connectivity; Bluetooth and 802.11 are examples. These two standards provide very high speed network connections over short distances, typically in the tens of meters. Meanwhile, cellular providers seek to increase speed on their long-range wireless networks. The goal is the same: long-range, high-speed wireless, which for the purposes of this report will be called 4G, for fourth-generation wireless system. Such a system does not yet exist, nor will it exist in todayâ„¢s market without standardization. Fourth-generation wireless needs to be standardized throughout the world due to its enticing advantages to both users and providers.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-outline-level: 1;"><br />
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</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-outline-level: 1;"><b><u><span style="color: black; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">VIEW OF 4G MOBILE AND WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS</span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">4G Mobile and wireless communication systems should support following functions:</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">1. Higher transmission rate up to 100Mbps</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">2. Flexible to advanced Internet, QoS control</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">3. Enhanced security</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">4. Seamless operation across networks</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">5. Multiple broadband access options in combined public and private networks including wirelessLAN, wireless home link and ad-hoc network.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">1G and 2G systems were voice communications, and digitized voice communications with some data communications, respectively, where a major difference was roaming between regions. 3G systems provide multimedia and wireless Internet at relatively high data rates, by utilizing packet switched services. However, significant paradigm shift should be taken into account for 4G systems, since wireless LAN, wireless MAN (WiMAX), wireless ad-hoc and sensor networks are becoming popular.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in;"><b><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></b><b><u><span style="color: black; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">GOAL</span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-outline-level: 1;"><b><u><span style="color: black; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></u></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">The goal of 4G will be to replace the entire core of cellular networks with a single worldwide cellular network completely standardized based on the (Internet Protocol) IP for video, packet data utilizing Voice over IP (VoIP) and multimedia services. The newly standardized networks would provide uniform video, voice, and data services to the cellular handset or handheld Internet appliance, based entirely on IP (Internet Protocol).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">The 4G providers of advanced cellular technology in FEC (Forward Error Correction) are adopting Concatenated Coding which has the capability of multiple QoS (Quality of Service) levels. FEC coding adds redundancy to a transmitted coded signal through encoding prior to transmission.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">The primary goal of the planned 4G cellular services will include the following:</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">• Interactive Multimedia, Voice, Video Streaming</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">• High Speed Global Internet Access – VPN Availability</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">• Service Portability with Scalable Mobile Services</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">• High Speed, High Capacity, Low Cost Services</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">• Improved Information Security</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">• QoS Enhancements</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">• Multi-Hop Networking</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">• Spectral Bandwidth Efficiencies (8bits/Second/Hz)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">• Seamless Network of Multiple Protocols - 4G must be all-IP*</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">NETWORKS AND SERVICES</span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in;"><br />
<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">The aim of 3G is ‘to provide multimedia multirate mobile communications anytime and anywhere’, though this aim can only be partially met. It will be uneconomic to meet this requirement with cellular mobile radio only. 4G will extend the scenario to an all-IP network (access + core) that integrates broadcast, cellular, cordless, WLAN (wireless local area network), short-range systems and fixed wire. The vision is of integration across these network—air interfaces and of a variety of radio environments on a common, flexible and expandable platform — a ‘network of networks’ with distinctive radio access connected to a seamless IP-based core network a (Fig. 3).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">A vertical view of this 4G vision (Fig. 4) shows the layered structure of hierarchical cells that facilitates optimization for different applications and in different radio environments. In this depiction we need to provide global roaming across all layers.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Both vertical and horizontal handover between different access schemes will be available to provide seamless service and quality of service.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><b><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">WIRELESS ACCESS</span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-outline-level: 1;"><b><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></u></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">The radio part of the 4G system will be driven by the different radio environments, the spectrum constraints and the requirement to operate at varying and much higher bit rates and in a packet mode. Thus the drivers are:</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 65.45pt; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Adaptive reconfigurability—algorithms</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 65.45pt; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Spectral efficiency—air interface design and allocation of bandwidth</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 65.45pt; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Environment coverage—all pervasive</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 65.45pt; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Software—for the radio and the network access</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 65.45pt; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Technology—embedded/wearable/low-power/high communication time/displays.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">It has been decided within Mobile VCE not to become involved in technology issues or in the design of terminals. This is a large area, which is much closer to products and better suited to industry. The remaining drivers are all considered within the research programme.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">It is possible, in principle, to increase significantly the effective bit rate capacity of a given bandwidth by using adaptive signal processing at both the base station and the mobile.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Arguably the most significant driver in the wireless access is the bandwidth availability and usage and whereabouts in the spectrum it will fall. Currently 3G technologies are based around bands at 2GHz, but limited spectrum is available, even with the addition of the expansion bands. The higher bit rates envisaged for 4G networks will require more bandwidth. Where is this to be found? The scope for a world-wide bandwidth allocation is severely constrained and, even if this were feasible, the bandwidth would be very limited. For CDMA, systems could use multicodes and adaptive interference cancellation, which again raise complexity issues. Alternatively one could move to OFDM-like systems (as in WLANs), which offer some reduction in complexity by operating in the frequency domain but raise other issues, such as synchronization. The choice of the air interface’s multiple access scheme and adaptive components will need to be based upon the ease of adaptation and reconfigurability and on the complexity.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">A great deal of work on the characterization of radio environments has already been performed in the 2GHz and 5GHz bands within the first phase of Mobile VCE’s research, and spatial—temporal channel models have been produced. However, 4G systems will incorporate smart antennas at both ends of the radio link with the aim of using antenna diversity in the tasks of canceling out interference and assisting in signal extraction.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Coverage is likely to remain a problem throughout the lifetime of 3G systems. The network-of-networks structure of 4G systems, together with the addition of multimedia, multirate services, mean that coverage will continue to present challenges. We have already seen that the likely structure will be based upon a hierarchical arrangement of macro-, micro- and picocells. Superimposed on this will be the mega cell, which will provide the integration of broadcast services in a wider sense.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">HAPS are not an alternative to satellite communications; rather they are a complementary element to terrestrial network architectures, mainly providing overlaid macro-/microcells for under laid picocells supported through ground-based terrestrial mobile systems. These platforms can be made quasi- stationary at an altitude around 21—25 km in the stratospheric layer and project hundreds of cells over metropolitan areas (Fig. 7).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Due to the large coverage provided by each platform, they are highly suitable for providing local broadcasting services. A communication payload supporting 3G/4G and terrestrial DAB/DVD air interfaces and spectrum could also support broadband and very asymmetric services more efficiently than 3G/4G or DAB/DVD air- interfaces could individually. ITU-R has already recognized the use of HAPS as high base stations as an option for part of the terrestrial delivery of IMT-2000 in the bands 1885—1980 MHz, 2010—2025 MHz and 2110—2170 MHz in Regions 1 and 3, and 1885—1980 MHz and 2110—2160 MHz in Region 2 (Recommendation ITU-R M (IMT-HAPS)).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">The aim is to research new techniques which themselves will form the building blocks of 4G.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><b><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">MAIN CHALLENGES</span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><b><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;"></span></u></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">To achieve the desired features listed above researches have to solve some of the main challenges that 4G is facing. The main challenges are described below</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><b><i><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">Multimode user terminals</span></i></b><i><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">: </span></i><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">In order to access different kinds of services and technologies, the user terminals should be able to configure themselves in different modes. This eliminates the need of multiple terminals. Adaptive techniques like smart antennas and software radio have been proposed for achieving terminal mobility.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><b><i><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">Wireless system discovery and selection</span></i></b><i><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">: </span></i><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">The main idea behind this is the user terminal should be able to select the desired wireless system. The system could be LAN, GPS, GSM etc. One proposed solution for this is to use software radio approach where the terminal scans for the best available network and then it downloads the required software and configure themselves o access the particular network.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><b><i><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">Terminal Mobility</span></i></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">: This is one of the biggest issues the researchers are facing. Terminal mobility allows the user to roam across different geographical areas that uses different technologies. There are two important issues related to terminal mobility.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">One is location management where the system has to locate the position of the mobile for providing service. Another important issue is hand off management.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;"></span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjwEZPlRfaRIYUXfGE-bxaY4DwTRrxZ1L7fZ6ODQu4uWLkd_UljOMHwPzKRnKScCwgnyxIQ50MdzEoI0sFfxkmdGz_-rHOgLH6Gc0cmbDf6Zun2BEYZA0sbw8BpwaORUzW3vP8dCDo8QFHc/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="259" mda="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjwEZPlRfaRIYUXfGE-bxaY4DwTRrxZ1L7fZ6ODQu4uWLkd_UljOMHwPzKRnKScCwgnyxIQ50MdzEoI0sFfxkmdGz_-rHOgLH6Gc0cmbDf6Zun2BEYZA0sbw8BpwaORUzW3vP8dCDo8QFHc/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">In the traditional mobile systems only horizontal hand off has to be performed where as in 4G systems both horizontal and vertical hand off should be performed. As shown in figure 1, horizontal hand off is performed when a mobile movies from on cell to another and vertical handoff is performed when a mobile moves between two wireless systems. Some solutions for achieving vertical hand off have been discussed in section IV.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;"></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: right;"><i><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;"> Hand off mechanisms [2]</span></i></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><b><i><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">Personal mobility</span></i></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">: Personal mobility deals with the mobility of the user rather than the user terminals. The idea behind this is, no matter where the user is located and what device he is using, he should be able to access his messages.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><b><i><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">Security and privacy</span></i></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">: The existing security measures for wireless systems are inadequate for 4G systems. The existing security systems are designed for specific services. This does not provide flexibility for the users and as flexibility is one of the main concerns for 4G, new security systems has to be introduced.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><b><i><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">Fault tolerance</span></i></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">: As we all know, fault tolerant systems are becoming more popular throughout the world. The existing wireless system structure has a tree like topology and hence if one of the components suffers damage the whole system goes down. This is not desirable in case of 4G. Hence one of the main issues is to design a fault tolerant system for 4G.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><b><i><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">Billing System</span></i></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">: 3G mostly follows a flat rate billing system based where the user is charged just by a single operator for his usage according to call duration, transferred data etc. But in 4G wireless systems, the user might switch between different service providers and may use different services. In this case, it is hard for both the users and service providers to deal with separate bills. Hence the operators have to design a billing architecture that provides a single bill to the user for all the services he has used. Moreover the bill should be fair to all kinds of users.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;"></span><b><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">APPLICATIONS OF 4G</span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><b><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;"></span></u></b><b><i><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">Virtual Presence</span></i></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">: This means that 4G provides user services at all times, even if the user is off-site.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><b><i><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">Virtual navigation</span></i></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">: 4G provides users with virtual navigation through which a user </span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">can access a database of the streets, buildings etc of large cities. This requires high speed data transmission.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><b><i><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">Tele-Medicine</span></i></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">: 4G will support remote health monitoring of patients. A user need not go to the hospital and can get videoconference assistance for a doctor at anytime and anywhere.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><b><i><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">Tele-geoprocessing applications</span></i></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">: This is a combination of GIS (Geographical Information System) and GPS (Global Positioning System) in which a user can get the location by querying.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><b><i><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">Crisis management</span></i></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">: Natural disasters can cause break down in communication systems. In today’s world it might take days or weeks to restore the system. But in 4G it is expected to restore such crisis issues in a few hours.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><b><i><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">Education</span></i></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">: For people who are interested in life long education, 4G provides a good opportunity. People anywhere in the world can continue their education online in a cost effective manner.<strong><span style="font-weight: normal;"></span></strong></span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-outline-level: 1;"><strong><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">FEATURES OF 4G WIRELESS SYSTEMS</span></u></strong><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></u></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Adaptive Modulation and Coding</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Speed, capacity and cost per bit</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Global mobility</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Service portability</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Scalable mobile networks</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Seamless switching</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Quality of Service (QoS) requirements</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Scheduling and call admission control techniques</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Ad hoc networks and multi-hop networks</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-outline-level: 1;"><b><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">Some main desired Features of 4G:</span></u></b><b><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><b><i><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">High usability and global roaming</span></i></b><i><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">: </span></i><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">The end user terminals should be compatible with any technology, at anytime, anywhere in the world. The basic idea is that the user should be able to take his mobile to any place, for example, from a place that uses CDMA to another place that employs GSM.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><b><i><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">Multimedia support</span></i></b><i><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">: </span></i><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">The user should be able to receive high data rate multimedia services. This demands higher bandwidth and higher data rate.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><b><i><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">Personalization</span></i></b><i><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">: </span></i><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">This means that any type of person should be able to access the service. The service providers should be able to provide customized services to different type of users.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;"></span><b><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">CONCLUSION</span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-outline-level: 1;"><b><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;"></span></u></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">4G seems to be a very promising generation of wireless communication that will change the people’s life in the wireless world. There are many striking attractive features proposed for 4G which ensures a very high data rate, global roaming etc. Table 1 shows the features and comparison between the different generations. New ideas are being introduced by researchers throughout the world, but new ideas introduce new challenges. There are several issues yet to be</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.5in 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TH;">solved like incorporating the mobile world to the IP based core network, efficient billing system, and smooth hand off mechanisms etc. 4G is expected to be launched by 2010 and the world is looking forward for the most intelligent technology that would connect the entire globe.</span></div></div>nidhin with youhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05193232493654918975noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3419907712518764991.post-88451809118674440552011-12-08T06:02:00.000-08:002011-12-08T06:02:34.324-08:00EXTREME ULRA VIOLET LITHOGRAPHY<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in; text-align: left;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">ABSTRACT</span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Silicon has been the heart of the world’s technology boom for nearly half a century. Each year, manufactures bring out the next great computer chip that boosts computing power and allows our Personal Computers to do more than we imagined just a decade ago. The current technology used to make microprocessors, deep ultraviolet lithography will begin to reach its limit around 2005. At that time, chipmakers will have to look to other technologies to cram more transistors onto silicon to create powerful chips. Many are already looking at extreme-ultraviolet lithography (EUVL) as a way to extend the life of silicon at least until the end of the decade.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Akin to photography, lithography is used to print circuits onto microchips Extreme Ultra violet Lithography (EUVL) will open a new chapter in semiconductor technology. In the race to provide the Next Generation Lithography (NGL) for faster, more efficient computer chips, EUV Lithography is the clear frontrunner. Here we discusses the basic concept and current state of development of EUV lithography (EUVL), a relatively new form of lithography that uses extreme ultraviolet (EUV) radiation with a wavelength in the range of 10 to 14 nanometers (nm) to carry out projection imaging. EUVL is one technology vying to become the successor to optical lithography. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">INTRODUCTION</span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">The current technology used to make microprocessors will begin to reach its limit around 2005. At that time, chipmakers will have to look to other technologies to cram more transistors onto silicon to create more powerful chips.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Potential successors to optical projection lithography are being aggressively developed. These are known as “Next Generation Lithography” (NGL’s). EUV lithography (EUVL) is one of the leading NGL technologies. Using <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">extreme-ultraviolet</b> (EUV) light to carve transistors in silicon wafers will lead to microprocessors that are up to 100 times faster than today’s most powerful chips, and to memory chips with similar increases in storage capacity.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">EUVL DEFINITION</span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUVL) is an advanced technology for making microprocessors a hundred times more than powerful than those today.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">EUVL is one technology vying to replace the optical lithography used to make today’s microcircuits. It works by during intense beams of ultraviolet light that are reflected from a circuit design pattern into a silicon wafer. EUVL is similar to optical lithography in which light is refracted through camera lenses on to the wafer.</span></div><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in; text-align: left;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">EUV RADIATION</span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">We know that Ultraviolet radiations are very shortwave (very low wavelength) with high energy. If we further reduce the wavelength it becomes Extreme Ultraviolet radiations. Current lithography techniques have been pushed just about as far as they can go. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They use light in deep ultraviolet range- at about 248-nanometer wavelengths-to print 150- to 120- nanometer-size features on a chip. (A nanometer is a billionth of a meter). In the next half dozen years, manufactures plan to make chips with features measuring from 100 to 70 nanometers, using deep ultraviolet light of 193- and 157- nanometer wavelengths.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">LITHOGRAPHY</span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></u></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Computers have become much more compact and increasingly powerful largely because of lithography, a basically photographic process that allows more and more features to be crammed onto a computer chip.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Lithography is akin to photography in that it uses light to transfer images onto a substrate. Light is directed onto a mask-a sort stencil of an integrated circuit pattern-and the image of that pattern is then projected onto a semiconductor wafer covered with light-sensitive photo resist. Creating circuits with smaller and smaller features has required using shorter and shorter wavelengths of light.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">WHY EUVL?</span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in 0.5in 0.5in 0in; text-align: left; text-indent: 0in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></u></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">The current process used to pack more and more transistors onto a chip is called <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">deep-ultraviolet lithography</b>, which is a photography-like technique that focuses light through lenses to carve circuit patterns on silicon wafers. Manufactures are concerned that technique might soon be problematic as the laws of physics intervene.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Intel, AMD, and Motorola have joined with the U.S. department of Energy in a three-year venture to develop a microchip with ached circuit lines smaller than 0.1 micron in width. (Today’s circuits are generally .18 micron or greater.) A microprocessor made with the EUVL technology would be a hundred times more powerful than today’s. Memory chips would be able to store 1,000 times more information than they can today. The aim is to have a commercial manufacturing process ready before 2005.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">MOORE’S LAW</span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in; text-indent: 0in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></u></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Each year, manufacturing bring out the next great computer that boosts computing power and allows our personal computers to do more than we imagined just a decade ago. Intel founder <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Gordon Moore</b> predicted this technology phenomenon more than 35 years ago, when he said that the number of transistors on a microprocessor would double every 18 months. This becomes known as <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Moore’s Law.</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Industry experts believe that deep-ultraviolet lithography will reach its limits around 2004 and 2005, which means that Moore’s law would also come to an end without a new chip making technology. But once deep-ultraviolet hits its ceiling, we will see chipmakers move to a new lithography process that will enable them to produce the industry’s first Intel Pentium 4 Processor (as of May 2001) is 2.4 GHz. EUVL could add another 10 years to Moore’s Law.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">“EUV lithography allows us to make chips with feature size that are smaller that are small enough to support 10 GHz clock speed. It doesn’t necessarily make it happen,” Don Sweeny, EUV Lithography program manager at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), said. “The first thing we need to do is to make integrated circuits down to 30 nanometers, and<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>EUV lithography will clearly do that. “By comparison, the smallest circuit that can be created by deep-ultraviolet lithography is 100 nanometers.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in; text-indent: 0in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">THE INCREDIBLE SHRINKING CHIPS</span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0.5in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Twenty five years ago, the computing equivalent of today’s laptop was a room full of computer hardware and a cartload of punch cards. Since then, computers have become much more compact and increasingly powerful largely because of lithography.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0.5in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Why are smaller computer chips better and faster? It might seem a paradox, but as the size decreases, the chips become more powerful. It’s as simple as getting grandma’s house faster if she lives next door rather than across town: the electronic signals zipping around the circuitry to solve computing problems have less distance to travel. Today’s chip contains about 3,260 times more than the chip of 1971.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0.5in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">A microprocessor – also known as a <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">CPU</b> or central processing unit – is a complete computating engine that is fabricated on a single chip. The first microprocessor was the Intel 4004, introduced in 1971. The 4004 was not very powerful – could do was add substrate, and it could only do that 4 bites at a time. But it was amazing that everything was on one chip.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0.5in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">The first microprocessor to make it into a home computer was the Intel 8080, a complete 8- bit computer on one chip, introduced in 1974. The PC market moved from the 8088 to the 80286 to the 80386 to the 80846 to the Pentium to the Pentium II to the Pentium III to the Pentium 4. All of these microprocessors are made by Intel and all of them are improvements on the basic design of the 8088. The Pentium 4 can execute any piece of code that ran on the original 8088, but it does it about 5,000 times faster!</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in 0.5in 0.5in 0in; text-align: left; text-indent: 0in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></u></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">EUVL TECHNOLOGY</span></u></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in 0.5in 0.5in 0in; text-align: center; text-indent: 0in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></u></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">In many respects, EUVL retains the look and feel of optical lithography as practiced today. For example, the basic optical design tools that are used for EUV imaging system design and for EUV image simulations are also used today for optical projection lithography. Nonetheless, in order respects EUVL technology is very different from what the industry is familiar with. Most of these differences arise because the properties of materials in the EUV are very different from their properties in the visible and UV ranges.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Foremost among those difference is the fact that EUV radiation is strongly absorbed in virtually all materials, even gases.EUV imaging must be carried out in a near vacuum. Absorption also rules out the use of refractive optical elements, such as lenses and transmission masks. Thus EUVL imaging systems are entirely reflective. Ironically, the EUV reflectivity of individual materials at near-normal incidence is very low. In order to achieve reasonable reflectivity’s near normal incidence, surfaces must be coated with multilayer, thin-film coatings known as distributed Bragg reflectors. The best of these functions in the region between 11 and 14 nm. EUV absorption in standard optical photo resists is very high, and new resist and processing techniques will be required for application in EUVL.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Lithography is one of the key technologies that enable Intel to meet the challenge of Moore’s Law by allowing a 30% decrease in the size of printed dimensions every two years. Intel has been an industry leader in advanced lithography with the early introduction of 248 nm and 193 nm lithography tools into high volume manufacturing. Intel is continuing this trend with strong investment in Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV) research at our Hillsboro, Oregon, and Santa Clara, California, sites.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">HOW EUV CHIPMAKING WORKS</span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">For describing the EUV chipmaking process we should have a clear idea of chipmaking process. Both are described in the following sections.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Ultraviolet lithography can produce lines for integrated circuits as small as 39 nm in one recent test. To help sustain Moore’s law and cram more and more gates and memory units into a given space, manufactures of microchips must make the lines in their circuitry ever smaller. This usually means working with a shorter-wavelength light beam for creating the patterns used for inscribing fine features on silicon or metal surfaces. The form of lithography currently in mass production now can produce a half-pitch size (equal lines and spaces in between) of 90 nm and isolated line widths of 65 nm. To produce a later generation after that you would need even shorter wavelengths.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Silicon chips could be made more quickly and cheaply using a new technique developed by physicist in the US. Stephen Chou and colleagues at Princeton University have successfully imprinted patterns onto silicon using quartz moulds instead of the usual combination of lithography and etching. With a resolution of just 10 nm and an ‘imprint time’ of 250 ns, the new process could revolutionize the semiconductor industry – and keep ‘Moore’s Law’ on track for another 25 years.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">CHIPMAKING</span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></u></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Lithography’s akin to photography in that it uses light to transfer images onto a substrate. In the case of a camera, the substrate is film. Silicon is the traditional substrate in chipmaking. To create the integrated circuit design that’s on a microprocessor, light is directed onto a mask. A mask is like a stencil of the circuit pattern. The light shines through the mask and then through a series of optical lenses that shrink the image down, this small image is then projected onto a silicon, or semiconductor, wafer.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">The wafer is covered with light-sensitive, liquid plastic called <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">photoresist</b>. The mask is placed over the wafer, and when light shines through the mask and hits the silicon wafer, it hardens the photoresist that isn’t covered by the mask. The photoresist that is not exposed to light remains somewhat gooey and is chemically washed away, leaving only the hardened photoresist and exposed silicon wafer.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">The key to creating more powerful microprocessors is the size of the light’s wavelength. The shorter the wavelength, the more transistors can be etched onto the silicon wafer. More transistors equal a more powerful, faster microprocessor. That’s the big reason why Intel <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Pentium 4</b> processor, which has 42 million transistors, is faster than <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Pentium 3</b>, which has 28 million transistors.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">As of 2001, deep-ultraviolet lithography uses a wavelength of 240 nanometers. A nanometer is one-billionth of a meter. As chipmakers reduce to 100-nanometer wavelengths, they will need a new chipmaking technology. The problem posed by using deep-ultraviolet lithography is that the light’s wavelength get smaller, the light gets absorbed by the glass lenses that are intended to focus it. The result is that the light doesn’t make it to the silicon, so no circuit pattern is created on the wafer.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">This is where EUVL will take over. In EUVL, glass lenses will be replaced by <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">mirrors</b> to focus light. In the next section, you will learn just how EUVL will be used to produce chips that are at least five times more powerful than the most powerful chips made in 2001.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">The components on a microchip are made by carving patterns into layers of doped and undoped silicon. In the standard technique, light is shone through a stencil onto a silicon wafer that is coated with a light-sensitive polymer known as resist. Chemical etching then removes the regions of silicon coated with either the unexposed or the exposed polymer, until the desired structure is achieved. Finally, the remaining polymer is washed off.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Put such ‘photolithography’ is expensive and complex, and the resolution of the technique is fast approaching the diffraction limit. Thus means that it will not be able to make features much smaller than the current minimum size of about 130 nm – and that the semiconductor industry could soon violate one of its guiding principles. The Moore’s Law, Coined in 1965, the law described how the density of components on a chip doubled every 18 months, and was soon adopted by the semiconductor industry as a target.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in; text-indent: 0in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">THE EUVL PROCESS</span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"> Here’s how EUVL works:</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin: 0.5in 0.5in 0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">A laser is directed at a jet of <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">xenon gas</b>. When the laser hits the xenon gas, it heats the gas up and creates plasma.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0.5in 0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">This source of extreme ultraviolet light is based on plasma created when a laser is focused on a beam of xenon gas clusters expanding at supersonic speeds. (Besides invisible-to-the-eye extreme ultraviolet light, some visible light is also created, as seen in the blue glow in the photo.)</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0.5in 0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Once the plasma is created, electrons begin to come off of it and it radiates light at 13 nanometers, which is too short for the human eye to see.</span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></u></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0.5in 0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">The lights into a <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">condenser</b>, which gathers in the light so that it is directed onto a <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">mask.</b></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></u></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0.5in 0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">A representation of one level of a computer chip is patterned onto a mirror by applying an <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">absorber </b>to some parts of the mirror but not to others. This creates the mask.</span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></u></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0.5in 0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">The pattern on the mask is reflected onto a series of four to six <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">curved mirrors</b>, reducing the size of the image and focusing the image onto the silicon wafer. Each mirror bends the light slightly to form the image that will be transferred onto the wafer. This is just like how the lenses in your camera bend light to form an image on film.</span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></u></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0.5in 0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-indent: 0in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin: 0in 0.5in 0.5in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">The ETS (Engineering Test Stand, also called prototype machine) includes a condenser optics box and a projection optics box. Both boxes house complex optical trains of precision concave and convex spherical mirrors.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">The conventional method for making the reflective masks for EUV lithography is called magnetron sputtering. But the defect rate for the process is about 10,000 defects per square centimeter, far too many for successful EUV lithography. The new process, embodied in Veecco’s IBSD-350, produces precise, uniform, highly reflective masks with 81 alternating layers of molybdenum and silicon, each 3 to 4 nanometers thick. As the machine directs a beam of ions at the masks, the ion physically collide with each mask and form a vapor, which is precisely deposited on it at a defect density of less than 0.1 per square centimeter – a 100,000-fold improvement over conventional methods. This process also holds great promise for a number of other applications using virtually any material or combination of materials including metals, semiconductor, and insulators. A near-term possibility is making very-low-defect-density films for ultrahigh-density heads for the magnetic recording industry.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">The main role of the condenser optic box is to bring light to the reflective pattern on the mask. “We want to bring as much light to the mask and, ultimately, the wafer, as possible,” explains Sweeney. “The more light we deliver, the shorter the exposure time. It’s life taking a picture with a camera. A picture taken in bright noonday sun requires a shorter exposure time than does a picture of the same scene taken at twilight.”</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">For the semiconductor industry, brighter EUV images mean shorter exposure times, which translate to manufacturing more chips at a faster rate. The optic design team from Lawrence Livemore and Sandia designed a condenser optic system that collects and transports a significant fration of the EUV light from the source to the reflective mask. Once the image is reflected from the mask, it travels through the projection optic system. According to Sweeney, the projection optic box is the optical heart of the lithographic exposure system. “It is to the system what an engine is to a car,” he explains. The four mirrors of the ETS projection optic system reduce the image and form it onto the wafer. “Again, imagine using a pocket camera. The camera lens transmits an image to the film, which-like the wafer-has a light-sensitive surface,” says Sweeney.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">This wafer was patterned on an integrated laboratory research system capable of printing proof-of-principle, functioning microelectronic devices using extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUVL). The EUV lithography research tool was assembled at Sandia National Laboratories in Livermore, Calif., which has joined with two other Department of Energy laboratories – Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory – creating a Virtual National Laboratory to help develop EUV lithography for commercial use.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">According to Sweeney, Deputy Program leader for extreme Ultraviolet Lithography and Advance Optics. In Lawrence Livermore National laboratory, California, the entire process relies on wavelength. If you make the wavelength short, you get a better image. He says to think in terms of taking a still photo with a camera.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">“When you take a photograph of something, the quality of the image depends on a lot of things,” he said. “And the first thing it depends on is the wavelength of the light that you’re using to make the photograph. The shorter the wavelength, the better the image can be. That’s just a law of nature.”</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">As of 2001, microchips being made with deep-ultraviolet lithography are made with 248-nanometer light. As of May 2001, some manufactures are transitioning over to 193-nanometer light. With EUVL, chips will be made with 13-nanometer light. Based on the law that smaller wavelengths create a better image, 13-nanometer light will increase the quality of the pattern projected on to silicon wafer, thus improving microprocessor speeds. This entire process has to take place in a <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">vacuum</b> because these wavelengths of light are so short that even air would absorb them. Additionally, EUVL uses concave and convex mirrors coated with multiple layers of molybdenum and silicon – this coating can reflect nearly 70 percent of EUV light at a wavelength of 13.4 nanometers. The other 30 percent is absorbed by the mirror. Without the coating, the light would be almost totally absorbed before reaching wafer. The mirror surfaces have to be nearly perfect; even small defects in coatings can destroy the shape of the optics and distort the printed circuit pattern, causing problems in chip function. Hence Before new lithography tools are even built, Chip makers must develop and demonstrate the necessary mask making capabilities.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 16pt;">CONCLUSION</span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 16pt;"></span></u></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Extreme Ultraviolet Lithography (EUVL) will open a new chapter in semiconductor technology. In the race to provide the Next Generation Lithography (NGL) for faster, more efficient computer chips, EUV Lithography is the clear frontrunner. At EUV Technology,</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Successful implementation of EUVL would enable projection photolithography to remain the semiconductor industry’s patterning technology of choice for years to come. However, much work remains to be done in order to determine whether or not EUVL will ever be ready for the production line. Furthermore, the time scale during which EUVL, and in fact any NGL technology, has to prove itself is somewhat uncertain.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Several years ago, it was assumed that an NGL would be needed by around 2005 in order to implement the 0.1 um generation of chips. Currently, industry consensus is that 193nm lithography will have to do the job, even though it will be difficult to do so. There has recently emerged talk of using light at 157 nm to push the current optical technology even further, which would further postpone the entry point for an NGL technology. It thus becomes crucial for any potential NGL to be able to address the printing of feature sizes of 50 nm and smaller! EUVL does have that capability.</span></div><div align="left"></div></div>nidhin with youhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05193232493654918975noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3419907712518764991.post-44495626772369916222011-12-07T08:47:00.000-08:002011-12-07T08:47:14.746-08:00Natural Gas Leak Detection in Pipelines<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><strong><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Introduction</span></strong><br />
<br />
Natural gas consumption in the US is expected to increase 50% within the next 20 years<br />
(Anderson and Driscoll, 2000). At the same time, the gas delivery infrastructure is rapidly<br />
aging. The Department of Energy has stated that ensuring natural gas infrastructure reliability is<br />
one of the critical needs for the energy sector. The largest component of the natural gas<br />
infrastructure is the approximately 400 thousand miles of delivery pipelines. Therefore, the<br />
reliable and timely detection of failure of any part of the pipeline is critical to ensure the<br />
reliability of the natural gas infrastructure. This report reviews the current status of the<br />
technology for leak detection from the natural gas pipelines. The first part briefly reviews<br />
various leak detection methods used in the natural gas pipelines. The second part reviews the<br />
optical methods used for natural gas leak detection, and the final part reviews the potential<br />
sensors that can be used with optical methods.<br />
<br />
<strong> Review of Leak Detection Methods</strong><br />
<br />
There are a variety of methods that can detect natural gas pipe line leaks, ranging from<br />
manual inspection using trained dogs to advanced satellite based hyperspectral imaging (Carlson,<br />
1993; Scott and Barrufet, 2003). The various methods can be classified into non-optical and<br />
optical methods. The primary non-optical methods include acoustic monitoring (Hough, 1988;<br />
Klein, 1993); gas sampling (Sperl, 1991), soil monitoring (Tracer Research Corporation, 2003),<br />
flow monitoring (Turner, 1991; Bose and Olson, 1993), and software based dynamic modeling<br />
(Griebenow and Mears, 1988; Liou and Tain, 1994).<br />
Acoustic monitoring techniques typically utilize acoustic emission sensors to detect leaks<br />
based on changes in the background noise pattern. The advantages of the system include<br />
detection of the location of the leaks as well as non-interference with the operation of the<br />
pipelines. In addition, they are easily ported to various sizes of pipes. However, a large number<br />
of acoustic sensors is required to monitor an extended range of pipelines. The technology is also<br />
unable to detect small leaks that do not produce acoustic emissions at levels substantially higher<br />
than the background noise. Attempts to detect small leaks can result in many false alarms.<br />
Gas sampling methods typically use a flame ionization detector housed in a hand held or<br />
vehicle mounted probe to detect methane or ethane. The primary advantage of gas sampling<br />
methods is that they are very sensitive to very small concentrations of gases. Therefore, even<br />
very tiny leaks can be detected using gas sampling methods. The technique is also immune to<br />
false alarms. The disadvantages of the technology are that detection is very slow and limited to<br />
the local area from which the gas is drawn into the probe for analysis. Therefore the cost of<br />
monitoring long pipelines using gas sampling methods is very high.<br />
In soil monitoring methods, the pipeline is first inoculated with a small amount of tracer<br />
chemical. This tracer chemical will seep out of the pipe in the event of a leak. This is detected<br />
by dragging an instrument along the surface above the pipeline. The advantages of the method<br />
include very low false alarms, and high sensitivity. However, the method is very expensive for<br />
monitoring since trace chemicals have to be continuously added to the natural gas. In addition, it<br />
cannot be used for detecting leaks from pipelines that are exposed.<br />
Flow monitoring devices measure the rate of change of pressure or the mass flow at<br />
different sections of the pipeline. If the rate of change of pressure or the mass flow at two<br />
locations in the pipe differs significantly, it could indicate a potential leak. The major<br />
advantages of the system include the low cost of the system as well as non-interference with the<br />
operation of the pipeline. The two disadvantages of the system include the inability to pinpoint<br />
the leak location, and the high rate of false alarms.<br />
Software based dynamic modeling monitors various flow parameters at different<br />
locations along the pipeline. These flow parameters are then included in a model to determine<br />
the presence of natural gas leaks in the pipeline. The major advantages of the system include its<br />
ability to monitor continuously, and non-interference with pipeline operations. However,<br />
dynamic modeling methods have a high rate of false alarms and are expensive for monitoring<br />
large network of pipes.<br />
<br />
<strong>Review of Optical Methods</strong><br />
<br />
Optical methods of leak detection can be classified as either passive or active (Reichardt<br />
et al., 1999). Active methods illuminate the area above the pipeline with a laser or a broad band<br />
source. The absorption or scattering caused by natural gas molecules above the surface is<br />
monitored using an array of sensors at specific wavelengths. If there is significant absorption or<br />
scattering above a pipeline, then a leak is presumed to exist. The basic techniques for active<br />
monitoring techniques include Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy (TDLAS)<br />
(Hanson et al., 1980), Laser Induced Fluorescence (LIF) (Crosley and Smith, 1983), Coherent<br />
Anti-Raman Spectroscopy (CARS) (Eckbreth et al., 1979), Fourier Transform Infrared<br />
Spectroscopy (FTIR) (Best et al., 1991), and evanescent sensing (Culshaw and Dakin, 1996).<br />
Active monitoring of natural gas leaks from pipelines has been achieved with Lidar<br />
systems, (Minato et al., 1999; Ikuta et al., 1999), diode laser absorption (Iseki et al., 2000),<br />
Millimeter Wave Radar systems (Gopalasami and Raptis, 2001), backscatter imaging (Kulp et<br />
al., 1993), broad band absorption (Spaeth and O’Brien, 2003), and evanescent sensing (Tapanes,<br />
2003).<br />
Lidar systems typically use a pulsed laser as the illuminating source. The absorption of<br />
the energy of the laser along a long path length is monitored using a detector. Diode laser<br />
absorption uses the same technology with the crucial difference being that diode lasers are used<br />
instead of the more expensive pulsed lasers. If only a single wavelength is used, the system can<br />
be prone to false alarms since the laser can be absorbed equally well by dust particles.<br />
Broad band absorption systems utilize low cost lamps as the source, significantly<br />
reducing the cost of the active system. In addition, monitoring is achieved at multiple<br />
wavelengths so that the system is less prone to false alarms.<br />
For evanescent sensing, an optical fiber is buried along with the pipe. When natural gas<br />
escapes, the local changes in pressure or concentration causes a change in the transmission<br />
character of the optical fiber. This change in the transmission characteristics is monitored using<br />
lasers and optical detectors.<br />
Millimeter wave radar systems obtain a radar signature above the natural gas pipelines.<br />
Since methane is much lighter than air, the density difference provides a signature that can be<br />
used as an indicator of a potential leak. Backscatter imaging utilizes a carbon-dioxide laser to<br />
illuminate the area above the pipeline. The natural gas scatters the laser light very strongly.<br />
This scattered signature is imaged using an infrared imager or an infrared detector in conjunction<br />
with a scanner.<br />
All the active systems described above use a source and obtain either transmitted or<br />
scattered images to determine the presence of methane. These systems are can be mounted on<br />
moving vehicles, aircraft or on location. The advantages of these systems include capability to<br />
monitor over an extended range and ability to monitor leaks even in the absence of temperature<br />
differences between the gas and the surroundings. In addition, these techniques have high spatial<br />
resolution and sensitivity under specific conditions (Durao et al., 1992). The two disadvantages<br />
of the method are the high cost of implementation and the high incidences of false alarms.<br />
Typically, these systems also require a skilled operator, and cannot be used for unsupervised<br />
monitoring due to the safety issues involved with the operation of powerful lasers.<br />
Passive monitoring of natural gas leaks is similar to active monitoring in many aspects.<br />
However, the major difference between active and passive techniques is that passive techniques<br />
do not require a source. Either the radiation emitted by the natural gas or the background<br />
radiation serves as the source. This makes passive systems less expensive in some respects.<br />
However, since a strong radiation source is not used, much more expensive detectors and<br />
imagers have to be used with passive systems.<br />
The two major types of passive systems used for monitoring leaks from natural gas<br />
pipelines are thermal imaging (Weil, 1993; Kulp et al., 1998) and multi-wavelength imaging<br />
(Althouse and Chang, 1994, Bennet et al., 1995; Marinelli and Green, 1995, Smith et al., 1999).<br />
Thermal imaging detects natural gas leaks from pipelines due to the differences in<br />
temperature between the natural gas and the immediate surroundings. This method can be used<br />
from moving vehicles, helicopters or portable systems and is able to cover several miles or<br />
hundreds of miles of pipeline per day. Usually, expensive thermal imagers are required to pick<br />
up the small temperature differential between the leaking natural gas and the surroundings. In<br />
addition, thermal imaging will not be effective if the temperature of the natural gas is not<br />
different from that of the surroundings.<br />
Multi-wavelength or hyperspectral imaging can be accomplished either in absorption<br />
mode or in emission mode. For obtaining gas concentrations utilizing multi-wavelength<br />
emission, the gas temperatures have to be much higher than the surrounding air. Multiwavelength<br />
emission measurements have been typically used in the past to obtain single point<br />
concentrations in hot combustion products (Sivathanu et al., 1991; Sivathanu and Gore, 1991).<br />
Multi-wavelength absorption imaging utilizes the absorption of background radiation at multiple<br />
wavelengths to directly image the gas concentration, even in the absence of temperature<br />
gradients between the gas and the surrounding air. This technique has been used to monitor<br />
natural gas leaks in industrial settings very successfully. However, multi-wavelength or<br />
hyperspectral imaging typically utilizes very sensitive and expensive imagers.<br />
The biggest advantage of passive techniques is that they can be used from ground,<br />
vehicle, aircraft, and even satellite platforms. Therefore, long sections of pipelines can be<br />
monitored for natural gas leaks relatively easily. In addition, multi-wavelength passive systems<br />
are relatively immune to false alarms, and can be utilized for remote monitoring without being<br />
constantly watched over.<br />
The optimal method of monitoring large lengths of pipeline would be to utilize an array<br />
of ground based imagers. However, for passive infrared absorption, the detectors have to be<br />
very sensitive. In addition, for imaging applications, the basic infrared arrays are very<br />
expensive. This is the biggest disadvantage of these passive multi-wavelength and thermal<br />
imaging techniques.<br />
<br />
<strong>Review of Sensors</strong><br />
<br />
Absorption spectroscopy in the infrared region of the spectrum is very sensitive to gas<br />
concentrations (Zhang and Cheng, 1986; Best et al., 1991). In addition, absorption spectroscopy<br />
in the infrared is a robust technique and a range of single point sensors is available in the market.<br />
For monitoring leaks over a long distance of pipeline, single point absorption measurements<br />
cannot be used very effectively, since the gas does not always escape directly above the center<br />
line of the pipes. Therefore, imaging of the absorption over a small area above the pipe is<br />
essential. To image absorption by hydrocarbon gases, infrared arrays are required since the<br />
major absorption occurs in mid infrared bands (Grosshandler, 1980).<br />
Practical single element infrared detectors were developed during World War II by the<br />
German military from a lead salt compound (PbS). Over the past 25 years, the availability of<br />
high performance infrared detectors has spurred civilian applications. Today's detectors range in<br />
format from single element, uncooled detectors to specialized multi-spectral, staring arrays.<br />
There are two main classes of infrared detectors (thermal type and quantum type) with several<br />
types within each class. Thermal type infrared detectors include thermopiles, bolometers<br />
(Neikirk et al., 1984), and pneumatic and pyroelectric detectors. Pneumatic detectors utilize the<br />
expansion of a noble gas under incident radiation to vary the output of the detector. In<br />
Pyroelectric Detectors, an electric charge is generated on the surface of a crystal in accordance<br />
with the amount of temperature variation.<br />
Quantum type detectors are further classified into intrinsic types and extrinsic types.<br />
Intrinsic type detectors have detection wavelength limits determined by their inherent energy gap<br />
and responsivity drops drastically when the wavelength limit is exceeded. Among them, the<br />
photoconductive detectors, which change their conductivity when infrared radiation is incident,<br />
have high responsivity and allow simple signal processing. The photovoltaic detectors generate<br />
an electric current when infrared radiation is incident and have high responsivity and a fast<br />
response speed. HgCdTe or PbSnTe detectors are also included in the intrinsic type detectors.<br />
Controlling the composition of the ternary mixture can change the wavelength of peak<br />
responsivity of these detectors. In particular, the HgCdTe detectors are useful since they respond<br />
to wavelengths in the 3 to 5 μm and 7 to 13 μm ranges. Extrinsic Type Detectors are<br />
photoconductive detectors whose wavelength limits are determined by the level of impurities<br />
doped in high concentrations to the Ge or Si semiconductors. The biggest difference between<br />
intrinsic type detectors and extrinsic type detectors is the operating temperature. Extrinsic type<br />
detectors must be cooled down to the temperature of liquid helium.<br />
Of the various types of commercial detectors, uncooled bolometers are used in the far<br />
infrared region of the spectrum (Meyer et al., 1996; Liddiard et al., 1996). Uncooled arrays are<br />
currently used in the SWIR region (Kozlowski et al., 1996) or in the Far Infrared Region. In the<br />
mid infrared region, commercial imagers are available only with cryogenic cooling. The three<br />
different types of cryogenically cooled mid infrared imagers include the micro-bolometers, InSb<br />
and HgCdTe. The biggest disadvantage with cryogenic cooling is that the lifetime of the coolers<br />
are in the order of 5000 to 10000 hrs. Long life cryogenic cooling based on the Joule Thompson<br />
effect is just becoming available (Hansen, 1996). However, a German group is using these<br />
coolers only with research infrared arrays. The second disadvantage with cryogenically cooled<br />
infrared imagers is that they do not tolerate very high operating temperatures such as those<br />
present on the factory floor. Finally, all these infrared imagers cost more than $ 10,000. This<br />
makes it almost impossible to use for routine on-line applications.<br />
One method of eliminating the high cost of infrared arrays is to utilize a scanner in<br />
conjunction with single element sensors. Scanners are typically used in hyperspectral imaging<br />
applications, primary for observing earth based (Porter and Enmark, 1987; Green et al., 1990;<br />
Lehmann et al., 1995). The primary advantage of using scanners is that the technology is mature<br />
and cost effective. However, multi-spectral infrared imagers using single element sensors with<br />
scanners are not yet commercially available.<br />
In summary, a range of techniques is currently being utilized for monitoring leaks from<br />
natural gas pipelines. A summary table highlighting the various techniques for natural gas leak<br />
detection is attached as Appendix-A. Any single technique has not yet become the industry<br />
standard due to the various limitations involved in the different techniques.</div>nidhin with youhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05193232493654918975noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3419907712518764991.post-32842734749212544272011-12-07T08:32:00.000-08:002011-12-07T08:32:28.015-08:00Infrared microbolometer sensors and their application in automotive safety<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold;"> <div align="left">Abstract</div><div align="left"><br />
</div></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">Recently the emergence of a new generation of infrared sensors – the microbolometer technology – based on an</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">infrared thermal detection mechanism which is particularly suited to operate at ambient temperature has opened the</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">opportunity for achieving low cost infrared imaging systems for both military and commercial applications. In a first</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">part, this paper gives an overview of this challenging technology highlighting the main characteristics of the sensors</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">developed by LETI that are particularly relevant to automotive applications. A special highlight on recent results</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">concerning the 160x120 focal plane array with a pixel pitch of 35μm is given. In a second part, the use of this</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">technology in automotive safety field is illustrated through an application of detection of moving objects in front of</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">a vehicle. The results shows that infrared sensors based on well-designed microbolometers represent a real middleterm</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">alternative to usual video sensors.</span></div><div align="left"><br />
</div></span></span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold;"><div align="left">1. Background</div><div align="left"><br />
</div></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">The automotive industry increasingly looks to Microsystems to put intelligence into cars. Safety improvement is</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">particularly concerned with this trend: acceleration sensors for airbags, tire pressure monitoring and collision</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">avoidance radar system. However, despite all of the automotive safety breakthroughs of this last decade, drivers still</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">face potential hazards during conditions of darkness or obscured visibility such as is present with fog, heavy rain or</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">snow. A challenging concern for the next few years is to improve vehicle safety in such adverse conditions with the</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">operation of front-hazard warning devices and reliable collision avoidance systems.</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">One of the major issues of such safety systems largely deals with the availability of adequate sensors that allow an</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">early and reliable detection of road obstacles in front of the car. Infrared thermal imaging is particularly suited for</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">this purpose as it provides an effective night-time viewing system that could tackle the inefficiency of the usual</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">sensors and fulfils the night driving safety requirements. Indeed, thermal imaging systems detect the</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">electromagnetic radiation emitted by any object at room temperature whatever its natural or artificial illumination.</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">As a result, infrared sensor intrinsically offers large advantages in comparison to alternative sensors working in the</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">visible spectrum or in the millimetric wavelength range such as radars do. This statement is clearly illustrated</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">considering that a visible vision camera exhibits poor efficiency in bad weather conditions even if it is coupled with</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">automobile headlights illumination. Moreover the range of the road that can be covered by headlights at night is</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">much less than the eye can see during daylight. Unlike visible vision, Infrared vision enhances the range of visibility</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">at night up to six times further than standard headlights. On the other hand, radar systems typically have poor</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">resolution because of their long wavelength. Consequently radar gives limited information regarding the shape of</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">the detected object in comparison to infrared imaging.</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">For various technological and financial reasons, infrared imaging has been primarily developed for military</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">applications. Such systems were originally based on quantum devices that typically operate at liquid nitrogen</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">temperature [1]. This low temperature requirement leads to high cost systems and has dramatically restricted the use</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">of thermal imaging. But recently the emergence of a new generation of sensors – the microbolometer technology –</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">based on an infrared thermal detection mechanism which is particularly suited to operate at ambient temperature has</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">opened the opportunity for achieving low cost infrared imaging systems for both military and commercial</span></div><span style="font-size: small;">applications</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">In this context, CEA/LETI has been involved in amorphous silicon uncooled microbolometer development since</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">1992 [3]. This high performance infrared technology is now commercialized in mass production by the French</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">company ULIS and it will rapidly meet the market ramping up demands like car safety applications. In order to</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">prepare the next infrared launch into automotive industry, CEA/LETI is involved in two European projects that aim</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">at improving automotive safety. In EURIMUS framework, a project named ICAR is under progress to develop a</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">specific camera for an affordable Driver Vision Enhancement (DVE) systems [4]. Besides, the SAVE-U project,</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">partially funded by the European Commission INFSO DG under IST program aims to develop an enhanced</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">vulnerable road users (VRU) detection system based on several detectors : a 24 GHz radar network coupled with a</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">vision part composed of both visible and infrared imaging sensors [5].</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">In a first part, this paper gives an overview of microbolometer technology highlighting the main characteristics of</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">these sensors that are particularly relevant to automotive applications. Then the paper will focus on recent results</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">obtained from a 160x120 microbolometer infrared focal plane array (IRFPA) with a pixel pitch of 35μm that has</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">been specifically designed for automotive Driver Vision Enhancement in the scope of ICAR project. In a second</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">part, the use of this technology in automotive safety field is illustrated through an application of detection of moving</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">objects in front of a vehicle highlighting the potential of this technology for pedestrian detection in the context of the</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">SAVE-U project.</span></div><div align="left"><br />
</div></span></span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold;"><div align="left">2. Microbolometer development at CEA/LETI</div><div align="left"><br />
</div></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="left">2.1. Thermal detector structure</div><div align="left"><br />
</div></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">The schematic structure of an uncooled thermal detector is shown in figure 1. As a general rule, these detectors</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">measure the temperature rise due to IR radiation absorption by a thermally insulated element. For this purpose,</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">thermal detectors are mainly composed of an infrared absorber embedded in closed contact with a thermometer</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">element. The thermometer element senses incoming IR induced temperature rise and converts it into an electric</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">signal. The most common detection mechanism is the resistive bolometer whose resistance changes with</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">temperature, but various other mechanisms can be used, such as pyroelectric effect [6, 7], thermoelectric junction</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">[8], P-N junction conductivity [9] or thermal stress induced mechanical deflection [10]. Considering a two</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">dimensional array of detectors, a readout integrated circuit (ROIC) is generally designed to measure the resistance of</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">each bolometer and to format the results into a single data stream for video imaging purpose. Finally, due to the</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">strong correlation between thermal insulation and sensitivity, the high performance uncooled IR detector must be</span></div><span style="font-size: small;">operated under vacuum – typically 10</span><br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhdN7MpNNbWP4kkgtQ6UZAYio0FLi9CDBZzMPlN6Yk_8JJq6DBJyLBpxvuxnr11Ah0gCuD_aHrIpttflhbXTcOZAl2kSgJRVgsGtz54Z1dn9W6Q1PNEBBE0wKGC0q96eU65WiucNqfmovKk/s1600/THER+DEC+SYSTEM.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="214" mda="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhdN7MpNNbWP4kkgtQ6UZAYio0FLi9CDBZzMPlN6Yk_8JJq6DBJyLBpxvuxnr11Ah0gCuD_aHrIpttflhbXTcOZAl2kSgJRVgsGtz54Z1dn9W6Q1PNEBBE0wKGC0q96eU65WiucNqfmovKk/s320/THER+DEC+SYSTEM.PNG" width="320" /></a></div><br />
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<div style="text-align: right;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"> </span></span></span></div><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"> <b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">In the footsteps of MEMS devices, microbolometer sensors have taken benefits from the latest silicon technology</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">advances. Unique surface micromachining techniques have been developed at CEA/LETI in order to produce above</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">the full custom CMOS readout circuit, very thin membranes made from amorphous silicon that are very sensitive to</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">infrared incoming radiations heating. Figure 2 shows schematically the structure of such a pixel whereas figure 3</span></div><span style="font-size: small;">describes its manufacturing process flow.</span><br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1_wUwYoAD-oFITyzyo_SVvFtsBjWvoIbaT8YTFhui0hpF2Ki8s-MSjS4repmN3IwzoAGaX2ootsqMfsByd0kWtCILf6XT4Bn30mzN5IaKDkTfOLxVx9TUk64FMja4NCD7zie2RdmCl1bb/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="307" mda="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1_wUwYoAD-oFITyzyo_SVvFtsBjWvoIbaT8YTFhui0hpF2Ki8s-MSjS4repmN3IwzoAGaX2ootsqMfsByd0kWtCILf6XT4Bn30mzN5IaKDkTfOLxVx9TUk64FMja4NCD7zie2RdmCl1bb/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-size: small;">In a first step a thin aluminium reflective layer is deposited and delineated directly on top of the ROIC. A 2.5 μm</span></span></span><br />
<div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">thick polyimide sacrificial layer is then spun and cured. An amorphous silicon film 0.1 μm thick is deposited over</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">the polyimide layer and covered by a metallic electrode obtained by reactive physical vapor deposition. Vias are</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">opened by dry etching throughout the structure down to the ROIC pads, and metal deposition and etching achieves</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">electrical continuity between the underlying substrate and active bolometric structures at the surface of polyimide.</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">At this point electrode delineation is done by wet etching of the metallic film selectively over the amorphous silicon.</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">The pixel contour is delineated and dry etched to the polyimide, and a final local polyimide etch over testing pads is</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">carried out. At this stage the wafers are tested for standard automatic electrical functionality and acquisition of array</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">parameters. Finally the microbridge arrays are created by polyimide removal in conventional resist etching</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">equipment. Figure 4 shows scanning electron microscopy pictures of a pixel and the detail of the metallic stud that</span></div><span style="font-size: small;">interconnect the microbolometer detector to the ROIC through the thermal insulation leg.</span><br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhpsW0bYafmrrgJ4kqI3lUBwaGbxQCT0d6bXVjWS_vaVUkI6-HUnr-lxHsA3lTLz3fHpovMNfywuLo12od4oCBII-JhC62VUNep1aqQM9ZHIBBGBDixqym3dmFgwrn6O_yfi2MdFLYcLoky/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; cssfloat: left; float: left; height: 183px; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em; width: 321px;"><img border="0" height="168" mda="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhpsW0bYafmrrgJ4kqI3lUBwaGbxQCT0d6bXVjWS_vaVUkI6-HUnr-lxHsA3lTLz3fHpovMNfywuLo12od4oCBII-JhC62VUNep1aqQM9ZHIBBGBDixqym3dmFgwrn6O_yfi2MdFLYcLoky/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">On this technological baseline, a first generation of bolometer technology focused on 45μm pitch was developed</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">and transferred to ULIS in early 2000 [11]. ULIS is currently manufacturing and commercialising two different</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">products (figure 5) based on a 320x240 focal plane array. These are both packaged under vacuum in a metallic</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">package. The UL01 01 1 device is a general purpose imaging uncooled infrared array whereas UL01 02 1 E device,</span></div><span style="font-size: small;">as it is supplied with an extra internal thermal shield, is more suited for radiometric applications.</span> <br />
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<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;">2.3. Cost reduction studies</span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold;"><div align="left"><br />
</div></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">The requirements of automotive application like the Driver Vision Enhancement system is mainly constrained by</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">objective cost of the overall system. CEA/LETI and ULIS technology is particularly designed to meet these</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">requirements. In fact, one of the key point of CEA/LETI and ULIS microbolometer technology has been to elect a</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">thermometer material made from amorphous silicon that features absolute compatibility with standard silicon</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">processing. This basic option leads to a high yield monolithic arrangement fully compatible with commercially</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">available CMOS silicon wafers. This feature intrinsically guaranties low cost attainment ideally suited for large</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">market distribution. Nevertheless, to extend this low cost high volume approach even more some further</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">developments are under progress at CEA/LETI in partnership with ULIS. The main point consists in reducing the</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">pixel size. Another key point is to develop advanced packaging techniques as it is well stated that vacuum packaging</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">is a cost driver in MEMS devices and particularly in uncooled IRFPA. A third point is to increase the integration of</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">advanced functions on the focal plane in order to facilitate its integration into system equipments.</span></div><div align="left"><br />
</div></span></span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;">2.4. Pitch reduction studies<br />
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<div class="separator" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div align="left"></div></span></span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi05oXinBAq87Qj1AKTwcJonyf3ex6afmjVZ7J2ocRtVsf_UsHfLE3sGYLhYUGrSmrYvaFXDMpN9q99Tz38CbNCz8rPRZuFYYA0-OBmd-SudN4m2xLpnzuysviegvOW26PWryq_ffB4Ofih/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="169" mda="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi05oXinBAq87Qj1AKTwcJonyf3ex6afmjVZ7J2ocRtVsf_UsHfLE3sGYLhYUGrSmrYvaFXDMpN9q99Tz38CbNCz8rPRZuFYYA0-OBmd-SudN4m2xLpnzuysviegvOW26PWryq_ffB4Ofih/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></b></b></span></span></span></span></b></span></span></span><br />
<div align="left">2.2. CEA/LETI technology</div><div align="left"><br />
</div></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">-2 </span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">Torr – in a specific package supplied with an infrared window.</span></span></span></b></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">Cost reduction has multifold benefits from this pitch reduction approach. Obviously, owing to the increase of the</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">number of dies per wafer, this will reduce the cost of the bolometer array itself. Besides, given a processing defects</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">density, the manufacturing yield is directly linked with the focal plane array size. Furthermore, this size reduction</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">will impact on both the dimension of the bolometer packaging and the form factor of the camera and consequently</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">their cost. Finally, we can expect a dramatic drop of volume, weight and cost of the infrared optics as the diameters</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">of the lens are directly linked with the size of the pixel for a given field of view and optical aperture.</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">To maintain a high level of performance despite the decrease of the pixel size, CEA/LETI in partnership with ULIS</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">have engaged in deep technological developments for the last couple of years. These developments aims at</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">increasing the thermal insulation of the pixel and at reducing the 1/f noise. In order to address this issue, an</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">innovative second generation technological embodiment, totally compatible with the ULIS industrial process, has</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">been developed. This so called second generation amorphous silicon microbolometer technology exhibits</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">dramatically enhanced sensitivity and enables the decrease of pixel pitch to 35μm, keeping a level of performance</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">entirely compatible with automotive night vision requirements. This second generation technology is now</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">completely matured and will be transferred from CEA/LETI research line to ULIS production line in 2003.</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">It is well stated that thermal insulation is the most critical parameter defining the performance of uncooled detectors.</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">In order to improve this point, the microbolometer designer can rely on two different options.</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">A first option consists in increasing the length of thermal insulating legs that sustain the microbolometer above the</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">CMOS substrate. The main drawback of this approach is the damaging decrease of the fill factor of the detector</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">induced by the increase of the area devoted to the insulation legs implementation. A two level pixel arrangement has</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">been proposed to tackle this issue but at the cost of a more complex and costly manufacturing process [12].</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">A second option followed at CEA/LETI is to achieve an enhanced thermal insulation by an advantageous reduction</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">of the section of the thermal insulating legs. According to this option, the length of the legs are kept pretty the same,</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">resulting in both high thermal insulation and high fill factor high absorption features. CEA/LETI – ULIS second</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">generation microbolometer technology relies on this approach. Typical characteristics of this second generation</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">technology for a 35μm pixel pitch are summarized in table 1, whereas typical microbolometer absorption spectra</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">obtained from reflection experiments using an infrared integrating sphere are disclosed in figure 6. We can notice</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">from these experimental data that for a given pixel pitch of 35μm :</span></div></span></span><span lang="JA" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span lang="JA" style="font-family: Symbol;"><div align="left">• </div></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">Thermal insulation (R</span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">th</span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">) has been increased by a factor greater than 3.</span></span><span lang="JA" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span lang="JA" style="font-family: Symbol;"><div align="left">• </div><div align="left">extra 60% 1/f noise reduction resulting from the optimization of the detector design (architecture improvement</div><div align="left">of the pixel as well as technological design rules shrink).</div></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">Similarly, the NETD figure has been improved by a factor of 5 due to the previous R</span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">th </span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">enhancement and to an</span></span><span lang="JA" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span lang="JA" style="font-family: Symbol;"><div align="left">• </div><div align="left">video frame rate, it has been possible to increase R</div><div align="left">35μm pixel pitch.</div></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">As far as the time constant (T</span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">th</span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">) of the 1</span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">st </span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">generation technology exhibits a tremendous margin regarding usual</span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">th </span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">keeping a fully usable time constant close to 12 ms for a</span></span><span lang="JA" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span lang="JA" style="font-family: Symbol;"><div align="left">• </div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">and high optical efficiency in the 8 to 14 μm wavelength range have been maintained as it can be noticed from</span></div><span style="font-size: small;">spectra of figure 6.</span><br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEinjGGTJVrJFnwdwFatvwE5xC0AG6k7zhsKt0SJJL3lsAtbf1NdQKS-qKcJlp2ahyphenhypheniNr3U6PXkDUI0VMYQ4srtsWXvfwJlx6EjA1vdz8XAiv063INfGz8qFvyTo5eZtBrE9f4BAVV_IGAox/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" mda="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEinjGGTJVrJFnwdwFatvwE5xC0AG6k7zhsKt0SJJL3lsAtbf1NdQKS-qKcJlp2ahyphenhypheniNr3U6PXkDUI0VMYQ4srtsWXvfwJlx6EjA1vdz8XAiv063INfGz8qFvyTo5eZtBrE9f4BAVV_IGAox/s640/Untitled.png" width="640" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXae5-6Vy39KG_cmDJCuvnOy0UZcV4WXrBVgUtzx-5zkzAMqZu1tf8hvjQ_e9m0YLOXf36o5Z_TuMI8MMWP5JWJAIqv5Yeu0SpBQjY79jga5rZfRTcbesYrr_XjfB6GHjILNeEuA9uZXy8/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="233" mda="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXae5-6Vy39KG_cmDJCuvnOy0UZcV4WXrBVgUtzx-5zkzAMqZu1tf8hvjQ_e9m0YLOXf36o5Z_TuMI8MMWP5JWJAIqv5Yeu0SpBQjY79jga5rZfRTcbesYrr_XjfB6GHjILNeEuA9uZXy8/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div><strong><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: small;"></span></strong><br />
<div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">2.5. Advanced readout development</span></div><div align="left"><br />
</div><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">Taking profit from the achievement and maturing of the second generation microbolometer technology ULIS and</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">CEA/LETI have designed a 160 x 120 2D arrays in the scope of ICAR project with particular attention to the low</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">cost automotive market. This new IRFPA is fed with a number of innovative on-chip features to simplify the use of</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">this focal plane keeping a very small silicon ROIC area down to 0.7 cm² for the 160 x 120 array, in order to reduce</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">wafer-level processing costs per die. This new 160 x 120 is designed to fulfil low resolution, low cost applications.</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">One of the most promising function is the possibility to adjust the skimming of the common mode current for each</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">pixel by an automatic acquisition and in-pixel storage of non uniformity coefficients in a first step and readout pixel</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">signal in a second step. At power on, the detector acquires its pixel compensation coefficients and stores them in onchip</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">memory for performing the current compensation during the following images acquisition and readout</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">sequences. This automatic mode of operation could be changed to an external driving mode with non uniformity</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">coefficients stored in an external memory (see figure7). The video output is available in analogic or digital format</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">with an on-chip 12 bits (2 x 6) ADC. Most of the biases are generated inside of the ROIC for friendly user</span></div><span style="font-size: small;">operatio</span><br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9hG4BAyklrD1wUXVhCZBER7nhGVboxcBjXomJnpLO3s_tGG_PzfDb9YXNaY9kyKs5PB2qVq-2l5L70PsHXkIeuzIMDlttJIfJzARXNQNUBHD6gWT064wdP92C1TOaSXb929T5XEJ0P33e/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="195" mda="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9hG4BAyklrD1wUXVhCZBER7nhGVboxcBjXomJnpLO3s_tGG_PzfDb9YXNaY9kyKs5PB2qVq-2l5L70PsHXkIeuzIMDlttJIfJzARXNQNUBHD6gWT064wdP92C1TOaSXb929T5XEJ0P33e/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="left">2.6. Packaging development</div><div align="left"><br />
</div></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="left"><u>Metallic package</u></div><div align="left"><br />
</div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">Metallic packages belong to the first generation of package used to integrate the microbolometer chip (figure 5), but</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">their cost remains a large part of the total detector cost and this trend will be amplified in the near future as the pixel</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">pitch will be reduced. As a consequence a less expensive package technology would be welcome and various</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9YjiYT-KzrowbO6fjNfuk1KOFqT0iWU8hZ7Fttwbo53ia198P6P32B5VBQ146x3GuSDKRp_lRCoZxuLHz3LQRFEHReuOA5Y7Eqc-CXM6_aAXoZa-x0yuiMBvKm-14USGNJuE437EbBnaQ/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="290" mda="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9YjiYT-KzrowbO6fjNfuk1KOFqT0iWU8hZ7Fttwbo53ia198P6P32B5VBQ146x3GuSDKRp_lRCoZxuLHz3LQRFEHReuOA5Y7Eqc-CXM6_aAXoZa-x0yuiMBvKm-14USGNJuE437EbBnaQ/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div><div align="left" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><span style="font-size: small;">developments are under progress in this field.</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">Ceramic package</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">Ceramic packages (figure 9) are currently developed at ULIS. This technology is using available technologies</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">developed for chips made in high volume production. Only the process used to assemble chip carrier and window</span></div><div align="left" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><span style="font-size: small;">carrier is adapted to take into account the required greater than 10 year lifetime under vacuum. These package</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">constructions are compatible with automatic assembling machines that will contribute to decrease manufacturing</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">cost.</span></div></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: xx-small;"><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><u>Wafer level packaging</u><br />
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</div></span></span><div align="left" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><span style="font-size: small;">Beside these rather standard packaging techniques, CEA / LETI is working on the development of a wafer level</span></div><div class="separator" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZcvS3hTB8yO-YzHPV1_9rewEPNz26QIPuZqBw5PIGdEAPE0EPqzoGhRw2IoVIiCyomWZgZrR6yGqt6XK_2zenhzZeYOGwOGtbIWXvKLTZjj8FuSl7a-9qjAfFGXYkbw1O-yb0jb2S1qIk/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="172" mda="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZcvS3hTB8yO-YzHPV1_9rewEPNz26QIPuZqBw5PIGdEAPE0EPqzoGhRw2IoVIiCyomWZgZrR6yGqt6XK_2zenhzZeYOGwOGtbIWXvKLTZjj8FuSl7a-9qjAfFGXYkbw1O-yb0jb2S1qIk/s400/Untitled.png" width="400" /></a></div><div align="left" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><span style="font-size: small;">packaging system in order to achieve the ultimate reduced manufacturing cost. This goal is completed in a 4 steps</span></div><div align="left" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><span style="font-size: small;">process. First, thanks to bulk micromachining techniques, a silicon micro-chip carrier is prepared on a silicon wafer.</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">In a similar way, a second silicon wafer is processed in order to achieve an infrared window. These two substrates</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">mainly consist of cavities and metallic thin film rings used for interconnecting and welding purpose. Then,</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">individual microbolometer IRFPAs are positioned and wire bonded into each chip carrier cavity. Finally, the</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">collective assembly (welding process) of the two wafers is carried out under vacuum leading to microbolometer</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">IRFPAs shut under vacuum into silicon cavities. The major advantage of this technique in comparison to</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">competitive option studied elsewhere [13], is that it does not require any extra soldering area on microbolometer die</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">and consequently it contributes to IRFPAs cost reduction.</span></div><div align="left"><br />
</div></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold;"><div align="left">3. Application in the automotive safety</div><div align="left"><br />
</div></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">Traffic accidents are responsible for an unacceptable huge number of casualties all over the world. To improve this</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">situation from the technological point of view, vision based systems for automotive safety represent one of the most</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">promising development for driver assistance. But it is well known that in bad weather conditions, at night and</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">usually every time the visibility is reduced the number of accident is increasing. Infrared video sensors, because they</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">are not too much affected by such conditions, are well adapted to automotive applications. In the SAVE-U project, it</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">has been chosen to use an infrared video sensor in addition to a visible wavelength video sensor and a radar to cope</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">with difficult situations. The application reported in this paper was developed within the SAVE-U project. The</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">objective was to detect obstacles coming in front of the vehicle to perform in a later stage their classification, which</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">is not presented here. The final objective of SAVE-U is to develop a system able to protect vulnerable road users</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">(pedestrians and cyclists).</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">Many current traffic accidents happen when unpredictable changes occur in the vehicle vicinity, therefore one of the</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">main important task is to detect those changes. Looking at a scene taken by a camera mounted on a vehicle, it</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">appears that main changes are due to vehicle global motion while minor changes are rather related to other moving</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">objects such as cars, bicycles or pedestrians. If we then estimate the camera induced 2D motion field and use it to</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">align two successive images, regions with secondary motions will be badly corrected and easily detectable (as</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">illustrated below). The technique consists in estimating the camera motion and in finding regions whose motion is</span></div><span style="font-size: small;">not consistent to it. This approach is based on image compensation techniques.</span><br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqWX0x4kfNdcr8j414qpeCzcN4yoX9trbXxbCDIuDgmN3F1scDex4qK_ULPNr95Ah7-8HeCamVwvFe4HZIAZ7ZDRspE-3UlnlbpQ5Xlq4sF-WTxCpIVWvf9G-EZlIIxxAPFohcbmD40nXO/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="274" mda="true" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqWX0x4kfNdcr8j414qpeCzcN4yoX9trbXxbCDIuDgmN3F1scDex4qK_ULPNr95Ah7-8HeCamVwvFe4HZIAZ7ZDRspE-3UlnlbpQ5Xlq4sF-WTxCpIVWvf9G-EZlIIxxAPFohcbmD40nXO/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">In the first section we will show how, using some restrictions, camera induced motion can be represented with a</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">polynomial model. In a second part we will present the regression criterion used to compute the model parameters.</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">As images present multiple motions simultaneously, the problem is reformulated in a robust framework such that</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">secondary motions correspond to non conform data (outliers). These regions are then rejected from computation</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">during the estimation process and will not corrupt the final solution. An iterative multi-resolution estimation scheme</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">is also used to cope with high motion and reduce noise influence. Finally results and conclusions are given in the</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">last section.</span></div><div align="left"><br />
</div></span></span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="left">3.1 Camera motion model</div><div align="left"><br />
</div></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">In the real 3D world, the camera motion is described by two components: a translation </span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">camera motion, a scene point P appears to be moving with rotation </span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">P could be deduced from those remarks. After the modelling of the camera orientation and location, the projection</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">of the real scene on the 2D sensor plane can be modelled using a perspective projection [17] but it leads to an</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">expression of the 2D velocity field, which is not free from the Z-depth parameter always difficult to recover with a</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">single camera. To get rid of the Z parameter, it is assumed that the scene can be approximated by a plane:</span></div></span></span><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Italic;"><span style="font-size: small;">T </span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">and a rotation </span></span><span lang="JA" style="font-family: Symbol;">Ω </span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><span style="font-size: small;">. Due to</span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="JA" style="font-family: Symbol;">−Ω</span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">and translation </span></span><span lang="JA" style="font-family: Symbol;">− </span><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Italic;">T </span></i></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><span style="font-size: small;">. 3D velocity vector of</span></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">Z </span></div><div align="left"><br />
</div><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold;"><div align="left">Conclusion</div></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">This paper has put emphasis on the main features of CEA/LETI infrared microbolometer technology. One of the key</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">points has been to elect a sensitive material made from amorphous silicon that features absolute compatibility with</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">standard silicon processing. This basic option leads to high performance and low cost infrared imaging systems</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">particularly suited for large market distribution such as automotive applications. This technology is now</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">commercialised in mass production by the French company ULIS, while a brand new advanced technological</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">arrangement has been demonstrated at CEA/LETI. The advent of this second generation of the technology results in</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">a fivefold performance improvement compared to the current industrial process and NETD of 56 mK obtained from</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">35μm pitch, 160x120 IRFPA has been demonstrated.</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">The results of detection by image processing techniques on infrared video sequences indicate that the approach</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">gives better results compared to those obtained with images coming from video cameras working at visible</span></div><div align="left"><span style="font-size: small;">wavelength. One reason seems to be that IR images present less detail but they are nevertheless textured enough for</span></div><span style="font-size: small;">motion estimation. From that point they represent a very good alternative to visible wavelength sensors.</span></span></span></b></span></span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="JA" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span lang="JA" style="font-family: Symbol;">= </span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">a X </span></span><span lang="JA" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span lang="JA" style="font-family: Symbol;">+ </span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">bY </span></span><span lang="JA" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span lang="JA" style="font-family: Symbol;">+ </span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">c (4) </span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">.</span></span></i></b></span></span></b></span></span></span></span></b></span></span></span></span></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-size: small;">Despite pitch reduction from 45 to 25μm and associated dramatic pixel area drop, fill factor larger than 80%</span></span></span></b></b></div>nidhin with youhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05193232493654918975noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3419907712518764991.post-72744044989222389752011-12-06T04:52:00.000-08:002011-12-06T04:52:38.669-08:00PROJECT OXYGEN<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: left;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><span style="color: #674ea7; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">PROJECT OXYGEN</span></span></b></div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: left;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: center;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u style="text-underline: thick;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">THE APPROACH</span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">INTEGRATED TECHNOLOGIES THAT ADDRESS HUMAN NEEDS</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Oxygen enables pervasive, human-centered computing through a combination of specific user and system technologies.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Oxygen’s user technologies directly address human needs. Speech and vision technologies enable us to communicate with Oxygen as if we’re interacting with another person, saving much time and effort. Automation, individualized knowledge access, and collaboration technologies help us perform a wide variety of tasks that we want to do in the ways we like to do them.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Oxygen’s system technologies dramatically extend our range by delivering user technologies to us at home, at work, or on the go. Computational devices, called Enviro21s (E21s), embedded in our homes, offices, and cars sense and affect our immediate environment. Hand-held devices, called Handy21s (H21s), empower us to communicate and compute no matter where we are. Dynamic networks (N21s) help our machines locate each other as well as the people, services, and resources we want to reach.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: white; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The Oxygen technologies work together and pay attention to several important themes:</span><span style="color: white; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt 27pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Distribution and mobility — for people, resources, and services.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt 27pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Semantic content — what we mean, not just what we say.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt 27pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Adaptation and change — essential features of an increasingly dynamic world.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt 27pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Information personalities — the privacy, security, and form of our individual interactions with Oxygen.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Oxygen is an integrated software system that will reside in the public domain. Its development is sponsored by DARPA and the Oxygen Alliance industrial partners, who share its goal of pervasive, human-centered computing. Realizing that goal will require a great deal of creativity and innovation, which will come from researchers, students, and others who use Oxygen technologies for their daily work during the course of the project. The lessons they derive from this experience will enable Oxygen to better serve human needs.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: white; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">USER TECHNOLOGIES</span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiD68ZSCNOo1WZg1fWyeZfyL3T-yfM9uDQzTmf7h5QKGO3eUx8MdYngvQmLf7-J9sEDUtUblrszrWOF76-fYFEkzAvE5vtwguzFLMcKlmKfVXuBI3b4o_nos0CAKVMxZLs2Z6DhUU_RyaS8/s1600/q.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" dda="true" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiD68ZSCNOo1WZg1fWyeZfyL3T-yfM9uDQzTmf7h5QKGO3eUx8MdYngvQmLf7-J9sEDUtUblrszrWOF76-fYFEkzAvE5vtwguzFLMcKlmKfVXuBI3b4o_nos0CAKVMxZLs2Z6DhUU_RyaS8/s320/q.png" width="300" /></a></div><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><shapetype coordsize="21600,21600" filled="f" o:preferrelative="t" o:spt="75" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" stroked="f"><div align="center" class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: center;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u style="text-underline: thick;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">SYSTEM TECHNOLOGIES</span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">DEVICES AND NETWORKS</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>People access Oxygen through stationary devices (E21s) embedded in the environment or via portable hand-held devices (H21s). These universally accessible devices supply power for computation, communication, and perception in much the same way that wall outlets and batteries deliver power to electrical appliances. Although not customized to any particular user, they can adapt automatically or be modified explicitly to address specific user preferences. Like power outlets and batteries, these devices differ mainly in how much energy they can supply.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">E21 STATIONARY DEVICES</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Embedded in offices, buildings, homes, and vehicles, E21s enable us to create situated entities, often linked to local sensors and actuators, that perform various functions on our behalf, even in our absence. For example, we can create entities and situate them to monitor and change the temperature of a room, close a garage door, or redirect email to colleagues, even when we are thousands of miles away. E21s provide large amounts of embedded computation, as well as interfaces to camera and microphone arrays, thereby enabling us to communicate naturally, using speech and gesture, in the spaces they define.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">E21s provide sufficient computational power throughout the environment </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">To communicate with people using natural perceptual resources, such as speech and vision, </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">To support Oxygen's user technologies wherever people may be, and </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">To monitor and control their environment. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>E21s, as well as H21s, are universal communication and computation appliances. E21s leverage the same hardware components as the H21s so that the same software can run on both devices. E21s differ from H21s mainly in </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.45pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Their connections to the physical world, </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.45pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The computational power they provide, and </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.45pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The policies adopted by the software that runs on the devices. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="header-section21"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">CONNECTIONS TO THE PHYSICAL WORLD</span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>E21s connect directly to a greater number and wider variety of sensors, actuators, and appliances than do H21s. These connections enable applications built with Oxygen's perceptual and user technologies to monitor and control the environment. </div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKYLF1nJblkigDCy0rS5NyRnUOwVZbbtq9IF4tiVTVrCFmWm5L5BHFGc5yQadGeKNVyvpxVD_cQt8IgsN33BYWok855dSIOGBouin7T3Ljt35Qn0Z8o9aHJJTLpKDxxZCpKxi4DSJ7Pusb/s1600/q.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" dda="true" height="256" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKYLF1nJblkigDCy0rS5NyRnUOwVZbbtq9IF4tiVTVrCFmWm5L5BHFGc5yQadGeKNVyvpxVD_cQt8IgsN33BYWok855dSIOGBouin7T3Ljt35Qn0Z8o9aHJJTLpKDxxZCpKxi4DSJ7Pusb/s320/q.png" width="320" /></a></div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">An E21 might control an array of microphones, which Oxygen's perceptual resources use to improve communication with speakers by filtering out background noise. Similarly, it might control an array of antennas to permit improved communication with nearby H21s that, as a result of a better signal-to-noise ratio, use less power. Multiple antennas mounted on the roof of a building, as well as incoming terrestrial lines, connect through E21s to high-bandwidth, local-area N21 networks. </span></div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Through the N21 network, an E21 can connect unobtrusively to H21s in the hands or pockets of people in an intelligent space. It can display information on an H21 display in a person's hand or on a nearby wall-mounted display; it may even suggest that the person step a few feet down the hall. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">H21 HAND-HELD DEVICES</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Users can select hand-held devices, called H21s, appropriate to the tasks they wish to perform. These devices accept speech and visual input, can reconfigure themselves to perform a variety of useful functions, and support a range of communication protocols. Among other things, H21s can serve as cellular phones, beepers, radios, televisions, geographical positioning systems, cameras, or personal digital assistants, thereby reducing the number of special-purpose gadgets we must carry. To conserve power, they may offload communication and computation onto nearby E21s.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Handheld devices, called <i>H21s</i>, provide flexibility in a lightweight design. They are anonymous devices that do not carry a large amount of permanent local state. Instead, they configure themselves through software to be used in a wide range of environments for a wide variety of purposes. For example, when a user picks up an anonymous H21, the H21 will customize itself to the user's preferred configuration. The H21s contain board-level antennas that enable them to couple with a wireless <a href="http://www.oxygen.lcs.mit.edu/Network.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">N21 network</span></a>, embedded <a href="http://www.oxygen.lcs.mit.edu/E21.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">E21 devices</span></a>, or nearby H21s to form collaborative regions. </span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjqW9w5JED9xEATUzQYnBnB_1RNyu7hY5dnBCaEwUbgLl5FQFtUEpi6q0lvfOeSbFQWRNumNsrjI2AdaE8HL2HPMe7KUrvu7RIczqluOMzv3ji7a9dazCoFoOWde4p8Do440y60pB1OA7bc/s1600/q.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" dda="true" height="261" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjqW9w5JED9xEATUzQYnBnB_1RNyu7hY5dnBCaEwUbgLl5FQFtUEpi6q0lvfOeSbFQWRNumNsrjI2AdaE8HL2HPMe7KUrvu7RIczqluOMzv3ji7a9dazCoFoOWde4p8Do440y60pB1OA7bc/s400/q.png" width="400" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>H21s, like E21s, are universal communication and computation appliances. They leverage the same hardware components as the E21s so that the same software can run on both devices. H21s differ from E21s mainly in </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.45pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Their connections to the physical world, </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.45pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The computational power they provide, and </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.45pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The policies adopted by the software that runs on the devices. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">CONNECTIONS TO THE PHYSICAL WORLD</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Because handheld devices must be small, lightweight, and power efficient, H21s come equipped with only a few perceptual and communication transducers, plus a low-power network to extend the I/O devices to which it can connect. In particular, H21s are not equipped with keyboards and large displays, although they may be connected to such devices. Through the N21 network, an H21 can connect unobtrusively to nearby, <br />
more powerful E21s, which provide additional connections to the physical world. The H21 contains multiple antennas for multiple communications protocols that depend on the transmission range, for example, building-wide, campus wide, or point-to-point.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
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</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">NETWORK AND SOFTWARE INFRASTRUCTURE</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>People use Oxygen to accomplish tasks that are part of their daily lives. Universally available network connectivity and computational power enable decentralized Oxygen components to perform these tasks by communicating and cooperating much as humans do in organizations. Components can be delegated to find resources, to link them together in useful ways, to monitor their progress, and to respond to change.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">N21 NETWORKS</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhh-8PfwpycWM7U-OwKP-XfXX8TSW0JiVignKTQuUVzw3BRVkAlZQGfgzBP1uuhGOd0bzxSGajxb12YIcp1JOg0Zjr6aAIBgsfBz286b-BkpSnAxLJ-OmFrLVxKr-6Z2tRlZMQTKbFRTZIY/s1600/q.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" dda="true" height="261" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhh-8PfwpycWM7U-OwKP-XfXX8TSW0JiVignKTQuUVzw3BRVkAlZQGfgzBP1uuhGOd0bzxSGajxb12YIcp1JOg0Zjr6aAIBgsfBz286b-BkpSnAxLJ-OmFrLVxKr-6Z2tRlZMQTKbFRTZIY/s400/q.png" width="400" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>N21s support dynamically changing configurations of self-identifying mobile and stationary devices. They allow us to identify devices and services by how we intend to use them, not just by where they are located. They enable us to access the information and services we need, securely and privately, so that we are comfortable integrating Oxygen into our personal lives. N21s support multiple communication protocols for low-power local, building-wide, and campus-wide communication, enabling us to form collaborative regions that arise, adapt, and collapse as needed.</span></div><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Flexible, decentralized networks, called <i>N21s</i>, connect dynamically changing configurations of self-identifying mobile and stationary devices. N21s integrate different wireless, terrestrial, and satellite networks into one seamless internet. Through algorithms, protocols, and middleware, they </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Configure collaborative regions automatically, creating topologies and adapting them to mobility and change.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Provide automatic resource and location discovery, without manual configuration and administration.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Provide secure, authenticated, and private access to networked resources.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Adapt to changing network conditions, including congestion, wireless errors, latency variations, and heterogeneous traffic (e.g., audio, video, and data), by balancing bandwidth, latency, energy consumption, and application requirements. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 348.75pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">COLLABORATIVE REGIONS</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Collaborative regions are self-organizing collections of computers and/or devices that share some degree of trust. Computers and devices may belong to several regions at the same time. Membership is dynamic: mobile devices may enter and leave different regions as they move around. Collaborative regions employ different protocols for intra-space and inter-space communication because of the need to maintain trust.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">RESOURCE AND LOCATION DISCOVERY</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>N21 networks enable applications to use <i>intentional names</i>, not just location-based names, to describe the information and functionality they are looking for. Intentional names support resource discovery by providing access to entities that cannot be named statically, such as a full soda machine or to the surveillance cameras that have recently detected suspicious activity. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>N21 networks integrate name resolution and routing. Intra-space routing protocols perform resolution and forwarding based on queries that express the characteristics of the desired data or resources in a collaborative region. Late binding between names and addresses (i.e., at delivery time) supports mobility and multicast. Early binding supports high bandwidth streams and anycast. Wide-area routing uses a scalable resolver architecture; techniques for soft state and caching provide scalability and fault tolerance. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>N21 networks support location discovery through proximity to named physical objects (for example, low-power RF beacons embedded in the walls of buildings). Location discovery enables mobile devices to access and present location-specific information. For example, an H21 might help visitors navigate to their destination with spoken right-left instructions; held up next to a paper or an electronic poster of an old talk, it could provide access to stored audio and video fragments of the talk; pointed to a door, it could provide information about what is happening behind the door. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">SECURITY</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>A collaborative region is a set of devices that have been instructed by their owners to trust each other to a specified degree. A collaborative region that defines a meeting, for example, has a set of trust and authorization rules that specify what happens during a meeting (how working materials and presentation illustrations are shared, who can print on the local printer). Typically, trust rules for a meeting do not allow participants to write arbitrary information anywhere in the region. However, once users know what the trust rules are, they can introduce their devices into the meeting's collaborative region, with confidence that only the expected range of actions will happen, even if the details of the interactions are left to automatic configuration. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Resource and location discovery systems address privacy issues by giving resources and users control over how much to reveal. Rather than tracking the identity, location, and characteristics of all resources and users at all times, these systems accept and propagate only the information that resources and users choose to advertise. Self-certifying names enable clients of discovery systems to trust the advertised information. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">ADAPTATION</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>N21 networks allow devices to use multiple communication protocols. Vertical handoffs among these protocols allow H21 devices to provide seamless and power efficient connectivity across a wide range of domains, for example, building-wide, campus wide, and point-to-point. They also enable applications to adapt to changes in channel conditions (e.g., congestion and packet loss) and in their own requirements (e.g., for bandwidth, latency, or reliability). They provide interfaces to monitoring mechanisms, which allow end-host transport agents to learn about congestion or about packet losses caused by wireless channel errors. This enables end-to-end resource management based on a unified congestion manager, which provides different flows with "shared state learning" and allows applications to adapt to congestion in ways that accommodate the heterogeneous nature of streams. Unlike the standard TCP protocol, which is tuned for bulk data transfers, the congestion manager efficiently handles congestion due to audio, video, and other real-time streaming applications, as well as to multiple short connections. N21 networks provide interfaces to control mechanisms, which enable applications to influence the way their packets are routed. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">SOFTWARE ARCHITECTURE</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Oxygen’s software architecture supports change above the device and network levels. The software architecture matches current user goals with currently available software services, configuring those services to achieve the desired goals. When necessary, it adapts the resulting configurations to changes in goals, available services, or operating conditions. Thereby, it relieves users of the burden of directing and monitoring the operation of the system as it accomplishes their goals.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><br />
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</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: center;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u style="text-underline: thick;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">USER TECHNOLOGIES</span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Several important technologies harness Oxygen’s pervasive computational, communication, and perceptual resources to advance the human-centered goal of enabling people to accomplish more with less effort.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">SPOKEN LANGUAGE, SKETCHING AND VISUAL CUES</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Spoken language and visual cues, rather than keyboards and mice, define the main modes of interaction with Oxygen. By integrating these two technologies, Oxygen can better discern our intentions, for example, by using vision to augment speech understanding through the recognition of facial expressions, gestures, lip movements, and gaze. These perceptual technologies are part of the core of Oxygen, not just afterthoughts or interfaces to separate applications.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>They can be customized quickly in Oxygen applications to make selected human-machine interactions easy and natural. Graceful switching between different domains (e.g., from a conversation about the weather in <city w:st="on"><place w:st="on">Rome</place></city> to one about airline reservations) supports seamless integration of applications.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">KNOWLEDGE ACCESS</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Individualized knowledge access technologies offer greatly improved access to information — customized to the needs of people, applications, and software systems. Universal access to information is facilitated through annotations that allow content-based comparisons and manipulations of data represented in different formats and using different terminologies. Users may access their own knowledge bases, those of friends and associates, and other information publicly available on the Web.</span></div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The individualized knowledge access subsystem supports the natural ways people use to access information. In particular, it supports personalized, collaborative, and communal knowledge, "triangulating" among these three sources of information to find the information people need. It observes and adapts to its users, so as to better meet their needs. The subsystem integrates the following components to gather and store data, to monitor user access patterns, and to answer queries and interpret data. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="textbold1"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">DATA REPRESENTATION</span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"> </span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The subsystem stores information encountered by its users using an extensible data model that links arbitrary objects via arbitrarily named arcs. There are no restrictions on object types or names. Users and the system alike can aggregate useful information regardless of its form (text, speech, images, video). The arcs, which are also objects, represent relational (database-type) information as well as associative (hypertext-like) linkage. For example, objects and arcs in A's data model can represent B's knowledge of interest to A—and vice versa. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="textbold1"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">DATA ACQUISITION</span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"> </span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The subsystem gathers as much information as possible about the information of interest to a user. It does so through raw acquisition of data objects, by analyzing the acquired information, by observing people's use of it, by encouraging direct human input, and by tuning access to the user. </span></div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
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</div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="textbold1"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">AUTOMATIC ACCESS METHODS</span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The arrival of new data triggers automated services, which, in turn, obtain further data or trigger other services. Automatic services fetch web pages, extract text from postscript documents, identify authors and titles in a document, recognize pairs of similar documents, and create document summaries that can be displayed as a result of a query. The system allows users to script and add more services, as they are needed.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="textbold1"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">HUMAN ACCESS METHODS</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Since automated services can go only so far in carrying out these tasks, the system allows users to provide higher quality annotations on the information they are using, via text, speech, and other human interaction modalities. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="textbold1"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">AUTOMATED OBSERVERS</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Subsystems watch the queries that users make, the results they dwell upon, the files they edit, the mail they send and receive, the documents they read, and the information they save. The system exploits observations of query behavior by converting query results into objects that can be annotated further. New observers can be added to exploit additional opportunities. In all cases, the observations are used to tune the data representation according to usage patterns. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">AUTOMATION</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: white; font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The automation subsystem provides technologies for encapsulating objects, both physical and virtual, so that their actions can be automated. It also provides scripting technologies that automate new processes in response to direct commands, or by observing, imitating, and fine-tuning established processes. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="header-section21"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">BASIC AUTOMATION OBJECTS</span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Basic automation objects are "black boxes" of low-level actions that can be managed by higher-level automation processes. The objects can be either physical or virtual. A <em>basic physical object</em> senses or actuates a physical entity—it may sense the temperature or whether an office door is open, and it may crank up the heat or send an image to a display. A <em>basic virtual object</em> collects, generates, or transforms information—it may extract designated items from incoming electronic forms, operate on them in a designated manner, and send the results to a particular device. </span></div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>A common intelligent interface connects basic physical objects to the network. The interface consists of a chip containing a microprocessor, a network adapter, main memory, and non-volatile storage. It makes different sensors, actuators, and appliances more powerful, provides device status information, reduces the bandwidth they require, and downloads commands and new low-level software. </span></div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Any software object can be a basic virtual object. Electronic forms are particularly common basic virtual objects, because they serve as convenient "interfaces" for exchanging information among people and organizations. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="header-section21"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">CONTROL OVER COMBINED OBJECTS</span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The automation architecture provides mechanisms for composing modular components, such speech, vision, and appliances, and for controlling their behavior based on user scripts. The architecture allows distributed objects (or agents) to refer to one another by function and capability, without respect to their location. Objects communicate using a universal streaming data "bus" standard. They can move around, be re-connected dynamically, and seamlessly resume previously established connections with one another. The scripting language enables users to specify easily and rapidly the tasks they wish to automate. </span></div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The automation subsystem uses a top-level watch-reason-automate "loop" to monitor and filter information of interest to the automation process, to select appropriate automation regimes for given tasks, and to implement those regimes. The scripting language enables users to customize automation regimes in response to context changes and other factors too complicated to handle automatically, either in the original script or in the watch-reason-automate loop. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">COLLABORATION</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The collaboration subsystem uses the <a href="http://www.oxygen.lcs.mit.edu/KnowledgeAccess.html"><span style="color: windowtext;">knowledge access</span></a> subsystem and the <a href="http://www.oxygen.lcs.mit.edu/Automation.html"><span style="color: windowtext;">automation</span></a> subsystem to support collaboration. The collaboration subsystem adds to the "semantic web" of the knowledge access subsystem by recording the context of human-to-human interactions. It informs the automation and knowledge access subsystems when we are engaged in a collaborative task so that the responses of these subsystems can be tailored appropriately to all those participating in the task. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="header-section2"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">MAINTAINING COLLABORATION CONTEXT</span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The collaboration subsystem uses the individualized knowledge access subsystem to represent and acquire information about human interactions, for example, by using the vision subsystem to determine who is present at a discussion and to observe physical gestures, by using the spoken language subsystem to track what people say to each other, and by observing human interactions with software applications. The collaboration subsystem remembers how a group arranges its workspace, and it creates virtual work places for distributed groups. It maintains the context of each collaborative group in an individualized knowledge database, so that it can be recalled to continue the discussion at a future time or in another place. Automated observers track features of interest to the collaboration and add to the knowledge database. Semantic links in the database maintain the history of the discussion and identify issues, alternative courses of action, arguments for and against each alternative, and resolutions to pursue particular alternatives. Human input helps guide the indexing process, by identifying critical decisions and linking them to the rationale behind them. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="header-section2"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">AUTOMATING COLLABORATIVE TASKS</span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The collaboration subsystem uses the automation subsystem, together with Bayesian techniques for analysis and knowledge-based techniques for process management, to act as a coordinator and mediate interactions among members of a collaborative team. It knows the interests, organizational roles, and skills of all team members, and it understands the application domain within which the team functions. For example, it tracks action items within the group and dependencies with other groups, retrieving relevant information and bringing it to the attention of the most appropriate individuals. The collaboration system plays the role of an active participant, noticing tasks that need to be undertaken, noticing when information required for those tasks has been developed, and making conclusions when appropriate. </span></div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
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</div><div align="center" class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: center;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">SOFTWARE TECHNOLOGIES</span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Project Oxygen's software architecture provides mechanisms for </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.45pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Building applications using composable, distributed components, </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.45pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Customizing, adapting, and altering component behavior, </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.45pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Replacing components, at different degrees of granularity, in a consistent <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>fashion, </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.45pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Person-centric, rather than device-centric, security, and </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.45pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Disconnected operation and nomadic code. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Oxygen's software architecture relies heavily on <i>abstraction</i> to support change through adaptation and customization, on <i>specification</i> to support components that use these abstractions, and on <i>persistent object stores </i>with<i> transactional semantics</i> to provide operational support for change. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">ABSTRACTION</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Computations are modular, as is storage. Abstractions characterize components that carry out computations and objects used in computations. In Oxygen, abstractions support the use of adaptable components and objects by providing </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Application access to components traditionally hidden beneath intervening layers of software, so as to observe and influence their behavior.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Intent-based interfaces, not just syntax or address-based interfaces, so as to facilitate component and object use, adjustment, replacement, and upgrade. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Stream-oriented interfaces that treat speech, vision, and sensor data as first-class objects, so as to enable compilers to manage low-level pipelining concurrency and multithreaded programs to adjust their behavior correctly at runtime in response to changes in the number of streams or the interactions among them. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Constraint and event abstractions, which separate computation from control, trigger what is processed when, and provide flexibility for modifying behavior at runtime without compromising system integrity.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Cutpoints, so as to provide safe fallbacks and to enable "eternal computation". </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 13pt;">SPECIFICATIONS</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span></b><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Specifications make abstractions explicit, exposing features to other system components. In Oxygen, specifications support adaptation and change by providing information about </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">system configurations, to determine what modules and capabilities are available locally, </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">module repositories, to provide code over the network for installation on handheld and other devices, </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">module dependencies, to support complete and consistent installations or upgrades, </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">module capabilities, to support other components and applications in scripting their use, and </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">module behavior, to support their safe use through a combination of static and runtime checks. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt 0in; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><br clear="all" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" /></span> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">PERSISTENT OBJECT STORE WITH TRANSACTIONAL SEMANTICS</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Code, data objects, and specifications reside in a common object-oriented store, which supports all Oxygen technologies (i.e., user, perceptual, system, and device technologies). Object-orientation helps maintain the integrity of the store by restricting updates to those performed by methods in the store. The store has transactional semantics, which enables concurrent access, rollback and recovery, and consistent updates to modules and data. It also operates efficiently, using techniques such as optimistic concurrency, pre-fetching, and lazy updates and garbage collection, which defer the costs of modifying the store as long as possible or until there is time to spare. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"></div><div style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"></div><div align="center" class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: center;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u style="text-underline: thick;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">HOW DOES OXYGEN WORK</span></u></b></div><div align="center" class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhMYQmQcx_gvXg8iD6vSPotX2COgl8Uu7yuK8Q7D5FfBbCQCe4X6emh4RlNwPFNgawNjcm9zZqera2TnPcw6Z8DasIP-UXW42MnznpjzDArBKyrZzbMFn4qLDTHGpou3nieV6Tqq7dN5DXd/s1600/q.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" dda="true" height="220" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhMYQmQcx_gvXg8iD6vSPotX2COgl8Uu7yuK8Q7D5FfBbCQCe4X6emh4RlNwPFNgawNjcm9zZqera2TnPcw6Z8DasIP-UXW42MnznpjzDArBKyrZzbMFn4qLDTHGpou3nieV6Tqq7dN5DXd/s320/q.png" width="320" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
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</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The figure showing h21-n21-e21 communications</span></u></b><u><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">.</span></u></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgpSI9DddKBaQBPd3ejIZqicNrq-dN1gU7oQ6UzNgGUiI6OazoZbFae83Za_zkTVJb7-hyrV-B4TIw2JiZl3Mh0BNSATbra0GXoqbjQUJd1pSbSr2CP2R8Hz1Jt1h0B4giwjCpRX-An7Yvm/s1600/aaaa.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" dda="true" height="184" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgpSI9DddKBaQBPd3ejIZqicNrq-dN1gU7oQ6UzNgGUiI6OazoZbFae83Za_zkTVJb7-hyrV-B4TIw2JiZl3Mh0BNSATbra0GXoqbjQUJd1pSbSr2CP2R8Hz1Jt1h0B4giwjCpRX-An7Yvm/s320/aaaa.png" width="320" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: center;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">PERCEPTUAL TECHNOLOGIES</span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="color: black; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">SPEECH</span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The spoken language subsystem provides a number of limited-domain interfaces, as well as mechanisms for users to navigate effortlessly from one domain to another. Thus, for example, a user can inquire about flights and hotel information when planning a trip, then switch seamlessly to obtaining weather and tourist information. The spoken language subsystem stitches together a set of useful domains, thereby providing a virtual, broad-domain quilt that satisfies the needs of many users most of the time. Although the system can interact with users in real-time, users can also delegate tasks for the system to perform offline. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The spoken language subsystem is an integral part of Oxygen's infrastructure, not just a set of applications or external interfaces. Four components, with well-defined interfaces, interact with each other and with Oxygen's device, network, and knowledge access technologies to provide real-time conversational capabilities. </span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; clear: both; text-align: center;"><br />
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<div class="separator" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggiJLiWIED17gBBSaZDWtPj15W0-_BNQ_QfRoGNumKPRxKGTw1O6Vmw-BuJw9v8tKD9j81KRpuwXnQy-3kjiI18_WEQuC_iymrilyckMkvAcNxcvi5goMJfzYo6IQ-EajumFs_Yl-wrbaL/s1600/w.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" dda="true" height="166" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggiJLiWIED17gBBSaZDWtPj15W0-_BNQ_QfRoGNumKPRxKGTw1O6Vmw-BuJw9v8tKD9j81KRpuwXnQy-3kjiI18_WEQuC_iymrilyckMkvAcNxcvi5goMJfzYo6IQ-EajumFs_Yl-wrbaL/s400/w.png" width="400" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">SPEECH RECOGNITION</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.55pt;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The speech recognition component converts the user's speech into a sentence of distinct words, by matching acoustic signals against a library of phonemes—irreducible units of sound that make up a word. The component delivers a ranked list of candidate sentences, either to the language-understanding component or directly to an application. This component uses acoustic processing (e.g., embedded microphone arrays), visual clues, and application-supplied vocabularies to improve its performance. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">LANGUAGE UNDERSTANDING</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The language understanding-component breaks down recognized sequences of words grammatically, and it systematically represents their meaning. The component is easy to customize, thereby easing integration into applications. It generates limited-domain vocabularies and grammars from application-supplied examples, and it uses these vocabularies and grammars to transform spoken input into a stream of commands for delivery to the application. It also improves language understanding by listening throughout a conversation—not just to explicit commands—and remembering what has been said. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Lite</span></i><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"> speech systems, with user-defined vocabularies and actions, can be tailored quickly to specific applications and integrated with other parts of the Oxygen system in a modular fashion. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">LANGUAGE GENERATION</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The language generation component builds sentences that present application-generated data in the user's preferred language. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">SPEECH SYNTHESIS</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>A commercial speech synthesizer converts sentences, obtained either from the language generation component or directly from the application, into speech. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">VISION</span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The visual processing system contains visual perception and visual rendering subsystems. The visual perception subsystem recognizes and classifies objects and actions in still and video images. It augments the spoken language subsystem, for example, by tracking direction of gaze of participants to determine what or whom they are looking at during a conversation, thereby improving the overall quality of user interaction. The visual rendering subsystem enables scenes and actions to be reconstructed in three dimensions from a small number of sample images without an intermediate 3D model. It can be used to provide macroscopic views of application-supplied data. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Like the spoken language subsystem, the visual subsystem is an integral part of Oxygen's infrastructure. Its components have well-defined interfaces, which enable them to interact with each other and with Oxygen's device, network, and knowledge access technologies. Like lite speech systems, lite vision systems provide user-defined visual recognition, for example, of faces and handwritings. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="header-section21"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">OBJECT RECOGNITION</span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>A <em>trainable</em> object recognition component automatically learns to detect limited-domain objects (e.g., people or different kinds of vehicles) in unconstrained scenes using a supervised learning technology. This learning technology generates domain models from as little information as one or two sample images, either supplied by applications or acquired without calibration during operation. The component recognizes objects even if they are new to the system or move freely in an arbitrary setting against an arbitrary background. As people do, it adapts to objects, their physical characteristics, and their actions, thereby learning to improve object-specific performance over time. </span></div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>For high-security transactions, where face recognition is not a reliable solution, a vision-based biometrics approach (e.g., fingerprint recognition) integrates sensors in handheld devices transparently with the Oxygen privacy and security environment to obtain cryptographic keys directly from biometrics measurements. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="header-section21"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">ACTIVITY MONITORING AND CLASSIFICATION</span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="text" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>An unobtrusive, embedded vision component observes and tracks moving objects in its field of view. It calibrates itself automatically, using tracking data obtained from an array of cameras, to learn relationships among nearby sensors, create rough site models, categorize activities in a variety of ways, and recognize unusual events. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
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</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: center;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u style="text-underline: thick;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%;">CHALLENGES</span></u></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u style="text-underline: thick;"><span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;"></span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>To support highly dynamic and varied human activities, the Oxygen system must master many technical challenges. It must be </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">pervasive—</span></i><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">it must be everywhere, with every portal reaching into the same information base; </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">embedded—</span></i><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">it must live in our world, sensing and affecting it; </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">nomadic—</span></i><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">it must allow users and computations to move around freely, according to their needs; </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">adaptable—</span></i><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">it must provide flexibility and spontaneity, in response to changes in user requirements and operating conditions; </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">powerful, yet efficient—</span></i><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">it must free itself from constraints imposed by bounded hardware resources, addressing instead system constraints imposed by user demands and available power or communication bandwidth; </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">intentional—</span></i><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">it must enable people to name services and software objects by intent, for example, "the nearest printer," as opposed to by address; </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0.45pt 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">eternal—</span></i><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">it must never shut down or reboot; components may come and go in response to demand, errors, and upgrades, but Oxygen as a whole must be available all the time. </span></div><div class="separator" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><br clear="all" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" /></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%;">CONCLUSION</span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Widespread use of Oxygen and its advanced technologies will yield a profound leap in human productivity — one even more revolutionary than the move from mainframes to desktops. By enabling people to use spoken and visual cues to automate routine tasks, access knowledge, and collaborate with others anywhere, anytime, Oxygen stands to significantly amplify human capabilities throughout the world.</span></div></span> </shapetype></span></span> </div>nidhin with youhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05193232493654918975noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3419907712518764991.post-6576098363128197612011-12-05T05:59:00.000-08:002011-12-06T04:05:17.892-08:00Thermal imaging on night time road safety<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<span style="color: black;"><span style="color: white; font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 14pt; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea;"><span style="color: red; font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 14pt; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea;"><span style="color: red; font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 14pt; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea;"><span style="color: red; font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 14pt; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea;"><span style="color: red; font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 14pt; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Helvetica;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="mso-special-format: bullet;"><span style="color: red; font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 14pt; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="color: red; font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 14pt; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="mso-special-format: bullet;"><span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;"><strong>INTRODUCTION</strong></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: black;"><span style="color: white; font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 14pt; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea;"><span style="color: red; font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 14pt; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea;"><span style="color: red; font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 14pt; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea;"><span style="color: red; font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 14pt; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea;"><span style="color: red; font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 14pt; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Helvetica;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="mso-special-format: bullet;"><span style="color: red; font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 14pt; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="color: red; font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 14pt; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="mso-special-format: bullet;"><span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;"><strong></strong></span></span></span> </span></span> </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Traffic<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>accedents<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>are<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>responsible<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>for<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>an<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>unacceptable<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>huge<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>number<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>of<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>casualities<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>all<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>over<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>world.To improve the situation from the technological point of view, vision based system for automotive safety represent one of the most promising development for driver assistance,but in bad weather condition,at night and usully every time the visibility is reduced the number of accedent increassing.while using this system the object was to dectect obstacles coming infront of the vachicle is dectected.many current traffic accedent happen when unpredictable changees occur in the vechicle vicinity.one of the main important task is to dectect those changes.looking at camera screen,by a camera mounted on a vachicle,it apperas that many changes are due to vachicle global motion while monor changes are rather reflacted to moving objects.</span></span></span></div><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"></span> <br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;"><strong>THERMAL IMAGING TECHNOLOGY</strong></span></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; margin: 0in 0in 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">This is the<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>technology operates by capturing the upper pportion or infra read light spectrum,which is emitted as heat by object instead of simple reflected as light.Hotter bodies such as warm bodies,emitt more of this light than cooler object like trees or building.</span></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; margin: 0in 0in 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The amount of of energy in a light is refered to the wave length.In the basicis of infraead spectrum,the thermal infrared occupying the largest part of the infrared spectrum,with wave length ranging from 3microns to over 30 microns. </span></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; margin: 0in 0in 10pt;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi97bmGUQ45W2WOtfPd-vWR5E2BdEIzJP2nt_31AH57V0gBphItEbmywgJe_gYGRyHJFqKBB8-ghKufJMqD2eudLmF_t-WBDenKiZDSYyQ-Rm2-O4kAj2YA_tFUxvx3xeZywFctC-J-X7_X/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" dda="true" height="112" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi97bmGUQ45W2WOtfPd-vWR5E2BdEIzJP2nt_31AH57V0gBphItEbmywgJe_gYGRyHJFqKBB8-ghKufJMqD2eudLmF_t-WBDenKiZDSYyQ-Rm2-O4kAj2YA_tFUxvx3xeZywFctC-J-X7_X/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At the hart of the thermal imaging system a silicon microbollometer,it is an infrared imaging sensor that convert infrared radiation in to images that are visible by a driver,even tiny temperature difference can be easily dectected,resulting in excellent night vision perfomance at a distance more than three times longer than light beam headlight.</span></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;"><strong>SILICON MICROBOLOMETER</strong></span></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Silicon microbolometer is the key component of the thermal imaging system.Microbolometer is a specific type of bolometer used as ‘detector in a thermal camera in thermal imaging technology systems’.IR radiation with wave length in between 7.5 -14</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">µ</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">m strikes the detector material, heating it and thus changing its electrical resistance. This resistance changes is measured and processed in to temperatures which can be used to create an image and it do not require cooling.<span style="mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span></span></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjb1FcB5DSWyMGnlAp5B03AOVQOGXa5-wHRCA694kKhgUyl3px3NxGUINXcwZ07dE7_uWiuUDmgzMtFZl06FaRwfX9e9dBdTw9GKNwtkxGqer8cc6E4T-1wZYttLt67pfLKgcZ22tdzKZ0Z/s1600/310px-Cross-sectional_microbolomter.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" dda="true" height="116" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjb1FcB5DSWyMGnlAp5B03AOVQOGXa5-wHRCA694kKhgUyl3px3NxGUINXcwZ07dE7_uWiuUDmgzMtFZl06FaRwfX9e9dBdTw9GKNwtkxGqer8cc6E4T-1wZYttLt67pfLKgcZ22tdzKZ0Z/s320/310px-Cross-sectional_microbolomter.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">A micro bolometer is an uncooled thermal sensor these method of cooling made of early images expensive to operate and unwieldy to move.</span></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQYeNuAlZhdGNmxBX1TrH3e0ZINUhl6c_LukcsAycLi7rfYzvsiva0P2ZZanriuUow-Eyva_7qa_ZpghcblbUz8jueU8SvsUpmEpcDdeIaQpZZCleEb0SeEquQU7A2Dbw0wBJB2cMUqNYP/s1600/THER+DEC+SYSTEM.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" dda="true" height="214" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQYeNuAlZhdGNmxBX1TrH3e0ZINUhl6c_LukcsAycLi7rfYzvsiva0P2ZZanriuUow-Eyva_7qa_ZpghcblbUz8jueU8SvsUpmEpcDdeIaQpZZCleEb0SeEquQU7A2Dbw0wBJB2cMUqNYP/s320/THER+DEC+SYSTEM.PNG" width="320" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A micro bolometer<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>consists of an array of pixels being made up of several layers. In this si and readout integrated circuit is the absorbing material. Electrical contants are deposited and then selective and etached away. A reflector is created beneath the IR absorbing material.<span style="mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><br />
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</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">The quality of the images created from micro bolometer has continued to increase it 320</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">×240 pixels from 1024×768 pixels. There has also been a decrease in the individual pixel dimensions. The pixel size is typically 45µm in older devices and has been decreased to 17µm in current device.As the pixels per unit area is increased.</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The detecting materials have the properties of the device to convert the incoming radiation to electrical signals, and the temperature coefficient of resistance is negative low resistance.</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-no-proof: yes;"></span></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;"><span style="color: black;">The specification of infrared imaging sensor,</span></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 42.1pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">High sensitivity <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>( <50mk thermal resolution )<span style="mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span></span></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 42.1pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Fast response time<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(> 60hz frame rate )<span style="mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span></span></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 42.1pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Small pixel size<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>( 17µm with low cost )</span></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt 42.1pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Multiple resolution<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>( VGA/16,VGA/4,VGA,XGA )</span></span></span></div><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><strong>TECHNOLOGY ON NIGHT TIME ROAD SAFETY</strong></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Thermal imaging technology can be used to<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>create image from the heat is naturally radiated by object such as pedistarians,cyclists,animal,road side object ,since these object may not otherwise be visible beacause of darkness.As a result of the thermal imaging systam can reduce the potential faital collision in bad weather conditions.</span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">The key components working and importents are mention above.So we want to place an IR camera and a thermal sensing unit attached to the ouu using driver assistance and the thermal imaging technology help to dectect the object on road during night time and monitoring the object in a screen using GPS system’s help.</span></div><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Thermal imaging cameras are excellent tools for night vision. They detect thermal radiation and do not need a source of illumination. They produce an image in the darkest of night and can be see through light, fogy, rain, and smoke. Thermal imaging cameras are widely used to complement new or exiting security network.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri", "sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Acording to most accident statics, more than twice as many accidents and casualities occur dark rather than during day light hours, the part of this is due to sleeping or impaired drivers, but another part is also due to the reduced visibility that occur after the sun goes to down.Any technology that improves the night driving visibile, therefor should improve driving safety.Night useful spectral range techniques can be sensed the radiation that is invisible to human observer.</span></div><span style="font-family: "Calibri", "sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Human can’t detect the spot of object on night time due to high light directly entering to the eyes.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The sensor system recognizes the living creators by heat radiation. To be able to warn the driver of a hazard in time, a recognizing distance about 100m must be ensured, regardless of weather conditions. To achieve this, the light making system must have a sufficient sensor system. All the currently available night vision system based on infrared require as an input 100w for illuminating the surrounding s in front of the vehicles. This corresponding to an additional co</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">₂ emission of 3g/km which is not acceptable in the present circumstances. So the </span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">silicon micro bolometer technology amorphous silicon micro bolometer have been developed using this technology with low cost and high yield. In addition, because they are high sensitive to infrared radiation, they are ideal for use in thermal imaging camera in thermal imaging system. </span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9wMMpNsQcTtPMSZFyZIl_5sd2z_yxF9HvUuw6ImcVQ-SjmxLLF092eMG2MLJ6gxk7rVrkuc6_MZNaf5WlI7YQg9H45RvKz_4wRzepmEU9-w_9Ki-1VsnzqVNIgursfLLlJMdVATHKNS-k/s1600/470camera%252C0.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" dda="true" height="204" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9wMMpNsQcTtPMSZFyZIl_5sd2z_yxF9HvUuw6ImcVQ-SjmxLLF092eMG2MLJ6gxk7rVrkuc6_MZNaf5WlI7YQg9H45RvKz_4wRzepmEU9-w_9Ki-1VsnzqVNIgursfLLlJMdVATHKNS-k/s320/470camera%252C0.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: left;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So it is not ideal out of the box, but as actually proven it self useful hasn’t Brocken down on the system yet and it posted outside with weather protecting capacity. Both the thermal imager and GPS were integrated in to the Beemer’s electrical system by using a secondary fuse box also incorporated with an ON/OFF switch for the camera to be able to turn the camera off when no requires.</span></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 22pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;"><strong>CONCLUSION</strong></span></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Most driving decision are based on what we can see it,we can avoid it.If we can’t see it,there is a chance we might hit it.This including warm bobied objects in the road ahead or anything the might be behind a vechicle when it is breaking up.</span></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Assumining that the driver n attention ,forword visibility is usully adequate during day light hour provided it is not raining or foggy.During night time on the other hand,can be challenging especily for people who have poor night vision,head light provides additional illumination for seeing the road ahead ,but conventional head lights have some serious illumination.So that thermal imaging technology is more sutable for the during night time driving.The infrared radiation and GPS system detected the objects in road and show in screen with a minimum of safety alarm to the driver to take appropriate action.Then it is clear that the use of thermal imaging technology help to reduce night time road accident and help outsisers from danger and protect the driver from major night time accident.</span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"></div><div style="text-align: left;"><br />
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</div></span></span></span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Displaying the images of the thermal imaging camera for this purpose the thought of GPS and second screen to look at seemed logical and redundant. Not only would it pay more than find a GPS with a video input. The screen is 4:8 diagonal screens which produces and provides usability in both GPS and video modes. The display is designed for mounting out side a vehicle and input to the screen.</span></span></span></div>nidhin with youhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05193232493654918975noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3419907712518764991.post-54798549495353079312011-11-22T05:09:00.000-08:002011-11-22T05:10:18.929-08:00LIVE TV<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif;"><b><u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: red; font-size: small;">F.A.Q</span></u> </b></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif;"><b><u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: red; font-size: small;"> </span></u></b></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif;"> <br />
<b> Problem 1 </b>: there is no such resource or the file has been removed or file expired.....<br />
<br />
<br />
<b> Solution</b> : If you are using Browsers like Opera mini Or UCweb please avoid it and brows this <br />
Page though your Default web browser of your phone.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b> Problem 2</b> : I am browsing from Computer and when I click on the LINK start streaming nothing <br />
happens<br />
<b>Solution</b> : Please assure that weather your computer contains an online player. Eg : Real player<br />
OR <br />
If you have VLC player Right click on Start streaming and copy link address and Open <br />
VLC and find out it's menu for steaming(Media>> Steaming) and put this link and click <br />
play.<a href="rtsp://a11.l1857056010.c18570.g.lq.akamaistream.net/D/11/18570/v0001/reflector:56010"> </a><br />
<b> Problem 2</b> :I am plying on phone when I try to play it says "set default access point first "<br />
<b>Solution</b> :Click menu and open the real player(in s60) and <br />
>>options>>settings>>connection>>network.>> SET YOUR WORKING SETTINGS <br />
AS A DEFAULT ACCESS POINT ,close it and try to play tv it will surely play,,<br />
<b> Problem 2</b> :I am browsing through my phone's (default) browser when I open the site and try to play <br />
it says "General memory full"<br />
<b>Solution </b> :If you are browsing in your phone's default browser please download uc browser <br />
(www.ucweb.com) and then access www.techdatacare.blogspot.com and try to play TV<br />
</span></b></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: red; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif;">OR </span></b></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: red; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif;"><br />
</span></b></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: red; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif;">Close all other applications</span></b></span></div>nidhin with youhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05193232493654918975noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3419907712518764991.post-15162319725363598202011-11-21T05:56:00.000-08:002011-11-23T06:40:14.517-08:00Malayalam mp3 Free Download<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><strong><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit;">ABHIMANYU</span></strong><br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh7s-4F43sYgPTyx3aX7L8nL2JJb8ARTK-of9bB9Eb7lc-VDVOx7UAT10AXUPY0jv5c-jT-ypEH5I4WvFxBC5BYy7aHaCxFJq45wwghaC4LJmmB7-Q-BgEABlQKtQhc-Xt7f8u5Josv3rnQ/s1600/Abhimanyu.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh7s-4F43sYgPTyx3aX7L8nL2JJb8ARTK-of9bB9Eb7lc-VDVOx7UAT10AXUPY0jv5c-jT-ypEH5I4WvFxBC5BYy7aHaCxFJq45wwghaC4LJmmB7-Q-BgEABlQKtQhc-Xt7f8u5Josv3rnQ/s200/Abhimanyu.jpg" width="176" /></a></div><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"> <span style="color: #444444;"> </span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/"><span style="color: #444444;">1.<span style="font-family: inherit;">Ramayanakatte - Abhimanyu</span><span style="font-family: inherit;"> <span id="goog_1003942022"></span></span></span></a></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana;"><span style="color: #444444;"> </span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1866270928"><span style="color: #444444;"> </span></a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: inherit;"><a href="http://k003.kiwi6.com/hotlink/9n1ir9uyz6/abhimanyu_kandunjan.mp3">2.Kandhunjan-Abhimanyu</a></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><u></u><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"> </span></span></div>nidhin with youhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05193232493654918975noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3419907712518764991.post-58234736876537379522011-11-21T05:15:00.000-08:002011-11-21T05:15:01.934-08:00Antilock brake system<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><strong><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Antilock brake system (ABS)</span></strong><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5m03Hm4UUfnzPVlgbydeg6QBg66M_SHc_IGAPCr6wk09kYu-ILLSQCpwDwRnIw65k_ncznkw4uLzCbCgyoo1AfjZ9GNVK09pmCQJ0C8seGa2bZxrT3nLMT5fo0t4jIDoAuvZADozkb2Gd/s1600/antilock_brake_system.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img border="0" height="280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5m03Hm4UUfnzPVlgbydeg6QBg66M_SHc_IGAPCr6wk09kYu-ILLSQCpwDwRnIw65k_ncznkw4uLzCbCgyoo1AfjZ9GNVK09pmCQJ0C8seGa2bZxrT3nLMT5fo0t4jIDoAuvZADozkb2Gd/s320/antilock_brake_system.jpg" width="320" /></span></a></div><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The antilock brake system or the ABS control unit helps to maintain control and directional stability of an automobile in case of extreme braking circumstances. This is achieved by controlling the rotational speed of every wheel by metering the brake line pressure at the time of extreme braking. The system works on most types of road surfaces and decreases the risk of an accident and severity of an impact. Research has shown that an antilock brake system can decrease the chance of a vehicle accident by 18%. ABS brake systems were introduced in the late seventies and have enjoyed great technological advances since that time.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> Not only does ABS provide non-skid functionality but it also supports electronic stability control, brake assist, traction control, etc. Recently, additional sensors have been added to the system, gyroscopic sensors and steering wheel angle sensors. Both synchronize to match the direction of the car with the direction of the steering wheel. The wheel angle sensor also helps the ABS system control the outer wheels to have a more positive braking effect when compared to the inner wheels on the curve.</span><br />
<br />
<strong><u><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">PRESSURE MEASURMENT</span></u></strong><br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhipW9JU0rA0FoDrSUQWUvPEzjFX9dBro_sfPHiQViaFYJ6fUit_-xpbiHeGqYhUmiT386P8uN_jz57EJKA_udVWlnDShn7mygS7NMO9IdcOUPxLmHnyrEgO1NR4Ls_7ZnoJf4yEUDwz3Dq/s1600/imagesCA3CLV4V.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="211" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhipW9JU0rA0FoDrSUQWUvPEzjFX9dBro_sfPHiQViaFYJ6fUit_-xpbiHeGqYhUmiT386P8uN_jz57EJKA_udVWlnDShn7mygS7NMO9IdcOUPxLmHnyrEgO1NR4Ls_7ZnoJf4yEUDwz3Dq/s320/imagesCA3CLV4V.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The ABS assembly is made up of a central electronic unit, four solenoid valves and two or more electric hydraulic pumps. The function of the electric hydraulic pump is to supply brake fluid pressure to the braking system by forcing hydraulic pressure to a reservoir located in the accumulator. The four solenoid pressure valves control brake fluid pressure for each individual wheel. During an ABS operation event, one or more of the solenoid valves dump brake line pressure to a particular wheel allowing it to start turning. ach wheel has a dedicated wheel speed sensor which sends an electronic signal to the ABS controller, from this signal the rotational speed of the wheel can be determined. The location of wheel speed sensor may vary, on most vehicles the front sensor is made into the steering knuckle, near the front wheel hub or outer CV joint. In the rear of the vehicle the sensor rings are bolted to the rear driver assembly on the ring gear or attached to the outer axle flange on each side. Some even use the vehicles speedometer sensor VSS (vehicle speed sensor) to read rear wheel speed. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">oday's brake systems are reliable and easy to maintain, most systems are designed for easy service and brake pad replacement. If the brake pedal becomes hard to push, there can be a possibility of a broken vacuum supply line or a failed power brake booster. It is also very important to use the correct type of brake fluid; otherwise the brake system can malfunction. This can lead to problems such as spongy feeling pedal and the brake pedal travel becoming excessive. Only the highest quality brake fluid must be used in a brake system and must never be reused and must always be discarded immediately after the fluid storage container is opened to avoid moisture contamination. When adding brake fluid to the master cylinder care must be taken make sure brake fluid is not spilled on the paint of the car, brake fluid is very corrosive and will destroy the paint. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Squealing brakes is an indication of a problem with the brake system. Most of the time a squealing noise can be a warning that the brake pads are worn down and need to be replaced. Other causes can be overheated brake pads or rotors. Sometimes rust can get impregnated on the brake lining material and cause grumbling or squeaking noises. When cleaning brake components prior to service precautions must be taken. Most brake systems contain microscopic fibers that are extremely hazardous to your health. While cleaning with brake system cleaner there is an increased chance of inhaling these fibers that accumulate on the brake components. Cleaning should be done in a well ventilated area, use an air filter respirator if possible for best results.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">When the ABS system detects a problem a fault code is stored in the ABS system control unit. When an error occurs the ABS warning light located on the dashboard flashes or stays on steadily. The ABS computer stores a diagnostic code until the malfunction has been repaired. To retrieve ABS trouble codes on older vehicles can be tricky because of the variation of retrieval methods; in this case a car repair manual is needed. On newer vehicles a diagnostic information connector is located under the dash on the driver's side; a trouble code scanner can be attached to retrieve ABS codes similar to engine trouble codes. </span><br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"></span></div><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">After the problem has been repaired codes should erase automatically with no procedure from the scan tool in most cases. (Real time system) when the vehicle has been moved about 6 feet and the brake pedal has been pressed for five seconds the codes should clear. When repairs have been completed the ABS, MIL (malfunction indicator lamp) should not be illuminated, if the ABS light remains on there is still a problem, re-scan the ABS computer for further repairs.</span><br />
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<tr bgcolor="#4654bc"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span><td bgcolor="#ffffff" valign="top"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong><u>ABS CONTROL MODULE</u></strong></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">The ABS control module is a microprocessor that is used to manage the operation of the ABS system. The ABS control module monitors and processes information from various sensors, modulates pressure to the brake system and carries out self-diagnostic tasks. Some of the inputs to the ABS module are the wheel speed sensors, brake switch, brake warning light, parking brake switch, pressure modulation devices and ignition and power feeds. The output controls consist of brake pressure modulation components and the anti-lock brake lamp. Most ABS control modules have the ability to run self diagnostic tasks and store trouble codes for failed diagnostics. The ABS control module can display this information to a scan tool or through flash codes, via the dash mounted anti-lock brake light, making troubleshooting and repair more accessible. Some ABS control modules store sensor information when a failed diagnostic is recorded. This can assist automotive technicians in diagnosing ABS trouble codes by displaying a record of sensor information at the time of the failed diagnostic.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span><u><strong><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">WHEEL SPEED SENSORS</span></strong></u><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqKwLmvkXtyxJUqJH4Mlr5qfdJQqtGPa8j1exemf91Ya1rWTpgGkOanspAB84J8MXNK_B_Yx6FkLMz11ftCRBjIrIm_HBMVfpAX1qYF2Co5Cz9XOsxGwFjnkL6J9BNtxLWyd_f2RO2owt6/s1600/abs.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="260" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqKwLmvkXtyxJUqJH4Mlr5qfdJQqtGPa8j1exemf91Ya1rWTpgGkOanspAB84J8MXNK_B_Yx6FkLMz11ftCRBjIrIm_HBMVfpAX1qYF2Co5Cz9XOsxGwFjnkL6J9BNtxLWyd_f2RO2owt6/s320/abs.gif" width="320" /></a></div><u><strong></strong></u><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Wheel speed sensors are used by the ABS control module to monitor wheel lock up. Wheel speed sensors consist of a toothed wheel, mounted on the wheel hub or axle shaft, so as to rotate when the wheel is in motion. A magnetic sensor is placed at a fixed location, a calibrated distance from the toothed wheel. The air gap between the toothed wheel and the magnetic sensor is usually around .040 to .060 in (refer to your auto repair book for the exact spec). When the tooth wheel rotates past the magnet on the sensor, an AC voltage is produced. The AC voltage output of the wheel speed sensor increases as the wheel speed increases. The ABS control module monitors this voltage to calculate wheel speed for ABS operation. If the ABS control module senses lower voltage from one sensor during braking, it will translate that as slower speed at that wheel and modulate brake pressure to control brake lock up.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span><strong><u><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">HYDRAULIC MODULATOR</span></u></strong><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><strong></strong><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">Brake lock up control is accomplished by rapidly applying and releasing the brakes of the affected wheel. To achieve this, the ABS control module is able to modulate brake hydraulic pressure to individual wheels. Brake pressure modulation is attained through several different methods. Design of the pressure modulation system varies according to vehicle design. One type of brake pressure modulator system uses solenoid operated valves to control brake pressure to individual wheels. The solenoids and valve arrangements are able to increase, hold or release brake hydraulic pressure to the brake system of a wheel. This system incorporates a hydraulic fluid pump to return fluid to the master cylinder and an accumulator to store excess brake fluid. When ABS operation is demanded, the control module operates the solenoid valves to hold or release pressure to one or all of the wheels, to control wheel lock up. A more recent design (and simpler to troubleshoot) uses high speed electric motors to seat and unseat hydraulic valves to control brake pressure during ABS stops. The electric motors are able to cycle the pressure modulation valves many times per second, to control wheel lock up. This design is less expensive to produce, since it does not require a hydraulic pump and accumulator as opposed to earlier designs.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span><strong><u><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">ABS WARNING LIGHT</span></u></strong><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjomYua9oiBlK4EBPQhyphenhyphenCZNWCf7Pf4ecZ8zK82jzG2xsTMx7h3O09n6XXPVuW02eTSSnyaNsNkvzBjVynvXzgSGaHuCTazAg9QP57xWJaOD6QVSTXpE6Chv86WhA1GMbfz3ygSM585EHLPM/s1600/imagesCA1BLTAT.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="179" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjomYua9oiBlK4EBPQhyphenhyphenCZNWCf7Pf4ecZ8zK82jzG2xsTMx7h3O09n6XXPVuW02eTSSnyaNsNkvzBjVynvXzgSGaHuCTazAg9QP57xWJaOD6QVSTXpE6Chv86WhA1GMbfz3ygSM585EHLPM/s320/imagesCA1BLTAT.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><strong></strong><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The ABS warning light operation is managed by the ABS control module. It is located in or near the instrument cluster and is used to warn the vehicle operator of a malfunction in the ABS system. In the event of a failure in the ABS system, the ABS warning lamp is illuminated to warn the driver. Some systems will inhibit ABS operation when the ABS lamp is illuminated. Refer to a manufacturer's manual covering your particular year/make/model automobile for the diagnostic and troubleshooting details before embarking on an auto repair project involving the ABS system.</span><br />
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</td><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span><td bgcolor="#ffffff" valign="top" width="120"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span><div align="center"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;"></span></span> </div></td></tr>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></tbody><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></table><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhk7RRMPabYiVVBm17e_u32k9GRU-Ei6YtXrfBPlhF8rACwWTFZeFrRZnNmwPofJ8U82w1TvCzsi0UsEWh8nCURKutFjzasyx53B3eajjAFzeCNck_UGfxhZjxPRXKBRjJRnTAhcQEnPgKj/s1600/innovation_shema_abs_320.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="218" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhk7RRMPabYiVVBm17e_u32k9GRU-Ei6YtXrfBPlhF8rACwWTFZeFrRZnNmwPofJ8U82w1TvCzsi0UsEWh8nCURKutFjzasyx53B3eajjAFzeCNck_UGfxhZjxPRXKBRjJRnTAhcQEnPgKj/s320/innovation_shema_abs_320.jpg" width="320" /></a></div></div>nidhin with youhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05193232493654918975noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3419907712518764991.post-81600893276126875992011-11-21T03:35:00.000-08:002011-11-21T03:35:35.517-08:00Smokeless Electronic Cigarette<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><h3 class="post-title entry-title"><u>Smokeless Electronic Cigarette</u> </h3><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDRc_andmb9m_EZgN8jGLLZ656MQJn9zAb5Ls_DcaoozWjK2kcApobI6II_FMw5c6RxAioKSrEmoiME0CTXsyw6HfWN0YF3go1j9NzT17UhJ0Pn6Kux7jdOYKnt897QyEWu3ThQ1UjA5Wk/s1600/Smokeless+Electronic+Cigarette.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="298" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDRc_andmb9m_EZgN8jGLLZ656MQJn9zAb5Ls_DcaoozWjK2kcApobI6II_FMw5c6RxAioKSrEmoiME0CTXsyw6HfWN0YF3go1j9NzT17UhJ0Pn6Kux7jdOYKnt897QyEWu3ThQ1UjA5Wk/s320/Smokeless+Electronic+Cigarette.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><div class="post-title entry-title"><br />
</div>Smokeless electronic cigarette is made up of all people 'smokers who want to but can not smoke in the community non-smoking areas, especially restaurants, cinemas, casinos and some bars. Smokeless cigarettes are supposed to be better than ordinary cigarettes because they do not absorb the emission of dangerous fumes. Smokeless electronic cigarette mean no smelly clothes, no terrible taste in Mouth and no residue in the car. Here is other smokeless electronic cigarette. The main type is the "smoke filter cigarettes, which includes a filter which prevents fumes since leaving the cigarette. These types of smokeless electronic cigarette involves the burning of tobacco and carcinogens, and therefore is worse than regular cigarettes. The old filter in this type can be replaced, and on the other hand, the large and apparently looks like a strange outcropping from the mouth. whereas smoke filter cigarettes do not emit smoke, they are still not allowed in common areas non-smoking areas. <br />
<div class="post-body entry-content"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">The next is "smokeless electronic cigarette 'which does not absorb the burning of tobacco. As a substitute for cigarettes,' these 'use an electrical charge to allow smoking confidentiality. They are full of nicotine, but does not create smoke, which is why they permitted for use in non-smoking areas. But the responsible doubts about this type are that it fails to provide the correct feel of conventional cigarettes provide. The lack of smoke, large size and unique feel, makes it less attractive for many. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">The third type of "steam-based mini electronic cigarettes 'is comparable with the electronic cigarette, contradictory only in the smoke characteristic. At the same time as' smoke electronic cigarettes 'may not generate smoke at all," steam-based mini electronic cigarettes' produces nontoxic water vapor , thus inspiring the conventional smoking experience. The water vapor that gives cigarettes a more normal sense without harmful smoke. A charger is used to recharge the battery in this cigarette, which consists of a cartridge containing nicotine, propylene glycol, water and tobacco flavors. Cartridges with nicotine and related variants (tobacco, apple and mint, orange, strawberry, caramel and coffee varieties) are offered. An LED is on hand at the tip, which lights up when in use. These "cigarettes" were intended to look like regular cigarettes, and is the most excellent choice for people who want to maintain smoking experience. What is more, in some areas, these cigarettes come up with cheaper than regular cigarettes. Since these cigarettes do not carry the smoke, they are permitted for use in non-smoking areas. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Companies have to move against the smokeless electronic cigarette, to help smokers stop smoking. Herbal smoke cigarettes are also available which do not have the tobacco and nicotine, and includes herbal medicine, on the way to please the tastes tactile feelings missing dependency on nicotine. The usual herbal aroma scent movements through the trachea and lungs and remove nicotine buildup in the smoker's body by removing the smoke smell. It is intended that these plant substances smokeless cigarettes can help knock desires and help smokers stop smoking everywhere. Most smokeless cigarettes may carry nicotine to provide a fix, on the other hand, they do not have the tar and chemicals on hand in the ordinary conventional cigarettes. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Smokeless electronic cigarette leaves no smoke or ash, and therefore cause little or no staining on fingers, although nicotine containing cigarettes cause yellowing teeth. None smoked stink lingers on hair and dress with this type of cigarettes. Seeing as there is no passive smoking, it compensates non-smokers. And that the fear of the smoking ban will be enforced is greatly reduced. Smokeless electronic cigarette that is supposed to be free from the 400 + carcinogens, which starts in conventional cigarettes, as a result remove the hazardous substances that cause cancer.</div></div></div>nidhin with youhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05193232493654918975noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3419907712518764991.post-66918534203318810032011-11-20T08:01:00.000-08:002011-11-20T08:01:44.926-08:00Microwaves And Satellite Communication<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><h3 class="post-title entry-title">Microwaves And Satellite Communication </h3><br />
<div class="post-header-line-1"></div>Micro is a unit for measuring length. As the name suggests microwaves are the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum where the wavelength is between about one millimeter and thirty centimeters that is micrometers. <br />
<div class="post-body entry-content"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-oeQMiY2bq0ugrtI-QJ9Mp4jZ8vsQ_LuFdf3PqjrdIsJ3y9yoYzbNpx7NQtWpgjA_xLjybW7vSeFzZWfkJnSPDO762gqycPgdCCs2uct8v8DlAEGEpxNlfGYBfBbBvjZ0QokJU46RWykG/s1600/Microwaves+And+Satellite+Communication.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="248" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-oeQMiY2bq0ugrtI-QJ9Mp4jZ8vsQ_LuFdf3PqjrdIsJ3y9yoYzbNpx7NQtWpgjA_xLjybW7vSeFzZWfkJnSPDO762gqycPgdCCs2uct8v8DlAEGEpxNlfGYBfBbBvjZ0QokJU46RWykG/s320/Microwaves+And+Satellite+Communication.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Frequency of microwave bands extends from about one gigahertz to three hundred gigahertz and are useful for short range, high reliability radio and television links. Systems using microwave frequencies radar, mobile radio, satellite communications, terrestrial line of sight and tropospheric links. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">An essential characteristic of microwaves is that they travel in straight lines passing through the atmosphere, is not affected by ionized layers. Again, these waves are very less affected by temperature inversions and proliferation. But these weather effects limit the distance between the transmitter and receiver to a couple of miles. This problem has been obtained by use of repeater stations placed along the propagation path that extends the distance over which communications may occur. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Basically a microwave repeater is a receiver / amplifier / transmitter combination used for relaying microwave signals over long distances and land communication links. As the frequencies of the signals thus increase the distance between repeaters decrease. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Main form of propagation in the microwave range is line of sight. Sight Line means that the transmitter and receiver must be able to see each other. Thus some sight communication depends on the height of the transmitting antennas and the nature of the terrain between them. Radio horizon limits the distance over which signals can be sent. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Microwave repeaters i.e. radio link systems carry large quantize of voice and data traffic and is subject to transmission impairments and thus reduce the distance between relay points. Majority of the radio link systems carry analog signals which is frequency modulated, while a few carry digital signals. Radio link systems, which are terrestrial are very directional and send point to point voice and data signals. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Like the television broadcast systems, including satellite radio link systems offers several path transmission of various signals. Waveguides are the main transmission media for transmission of frequencies in the microwave spectrum. The walls of the waveguides are very polished and sometimes specially plated to reduce resistance and hence power loss. These units are constructed of brass, copper or aluminum and is made in sections of various lengths. The sections are straight, bent, twisted or flexible. The most common form of waveguide is rectangular although round waveguides can be used. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Microwaves can be transmitted through common coaxial cable, micro strip, strip line and optical fiber, within certain range. Among these, transmission of light modulated signals through optical fibers is the model method. As waveguides provide excellent shielding and low loss so they can send larger amounts of power with less energy loss than co axial cables.</div></div></div>nidhin with youhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05193232493654918975noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3419907712518764991.post-69890384150782746732011-11-20T07:57:00.000-08:002011-11-20T07:57:16.578-08:00Switched Mode Power Supply<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><h3 class="post-title entry-title">Switched Mode Power Supply (smps) </h3><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjjQwPFB9im6OVY7paCrtx4-352BJ5NtJf93PPFGZvS8J0ozFhJ8dxos1ZKadB7tgQvmRz9ucOZNkdsRhOMMwCJYzVANtg7G_TjzPJESdteCTuB5AX_99N4YmXz9_T695-9F93R08pDAB1k/s1600/102382_SMPS_pbilimage1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjjQwPFB9im6OVY7paCrtx4-352BJ5NtJf93PPFGZvS8J0ozFhJ8dxos1ZKadB7tgQvmRz9ucOZNkdsRhOMMwCJYzVANtg7G_TjzPJESdteCTuB5AX_99N4YmXz9_T695-9F93R08pDAB1k/s200/102382_SMPS_pbilimage1.jpg" width="200" /></a></div><div class="post-header-line-1"></div><div class="post-body entry-content"> <div style="text-align: justify;">SMPS stands for Switched Mode Power Supply or switching-mode power supply. </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">SMPS is a power supply (PSU) for electronic use, which contains a switching regulator. While a linear regulator maintains the desired output voltage by spreading the excess current in a "pass" power transistor, the SMPS switches a power transistor to rapidly between saturation (full on) and cutoff (completely off) with a variable duty cycle whose average is the desired output voltage. This process gives rectangular waveform as a result which is filtered by a low-pass filter with an auxiliary coil and capacitor. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_bJswwOkhoqGWtx_tYQxqbw6JWcMnTyRkeW-25-TOxQ5DLGarGWvRJbkXwVUX3rWyJrYWenBg7HN8h2G_3kiwhUtS4fdehd7MVo37ngHtfC0zBMl-7mN3zhEd-z2lcJeJflTQ_RbocuPu/s1600/SMPS_Block_Diagram.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="132" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_bJswwOkhoqGWtx_tYQxqbw6JWcMnTyRkeW-25-TOxQ5DLGarGWvRJbkXwVUX3rWyJrYWenBg7HN8h2G_3kiwhUtS4fdehd7MVo37ngHtfC0zBMl-7mN3zhEd-z2lcJeJflTQ_RbocuPu/s400/SMPS_Block_Diagram.png" width="400" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">The top benefit of using this process in SMPS is that it gives a better performance. It is because of the small dispersion of power by switching transistor in the saturated and off mode compared to the semiconducting state (active region). Other benefits of Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS) includes smaller size and lower weight which is larger in low frequency transformers which have a high weight. Furthermore, it generates less heat from the higher efficiency. </div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><u><strong>Disadvantages of SMPS</strong></u> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;">*Greater complexity </div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">*The generation of high amplitude </div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">*High-frequency energy, low-pass filter must block to avoid </div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">*Electromagnetic interference (EMI) </div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">*Ripple voltage at switching frequency and harmonic frequencies .. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">*SMPS can be categorized into four types based on its input and output waveforms, as follows. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">*AC in, DC out: rectifier, off-line converter input.</div></div></div>nidhin with youhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05193232493654918975noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3419907712518764991.post-61066384642938250872011-11-20T07:41:00.000-08:002011-11-20T07:41:35.103-08:00PORTABLE HEATER<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"> <strong>PORTABLE HEATER</strong><br />
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<div class="post-body entry-content"> <div style="text-align: justify;">In large homes or houses without a heating system, portable stoves useful for keeping small spaces warm. Instead of providing heat to the whole house, homeowner can use a radiator in one room. Not only do these appliances save energy and money, but also spread the warm air more quickly than larger systems. </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">There are many choices of portable heaters. There are a wide variety available and the most expensive is not necessarily the best solution. They come in many different styles, and some even use different methods to provide heat. A buyer can make the right purchasing weigh their options before picking a machine. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><o:p></o:p></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><u>Important Options</u> <o:p></o:p></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgt65gsRUWJR_vM6jEMFPT_Yl-NgOkJyhry9PSF43pR-NGWgHlLhaWplptNcyy3TswEzGOx9E3E__424IAL8w1QYZ_yXcpKVID8fnzgAQ2pFCfF0l6Yg-Xy3nf98aDFne21WnHLXF0rWsEK/s1600/Top+Portable+Heaters+Available.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="284" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgt65gsRUWJR_vM6jEMFPT_Yl-NgOkJyhry9PSF43pR-NGWgHlLhaWplptNcyy3TswEzGOx9E3E__424IAL8w1QYZ_yXcpKVID8fnzgAQ2pFCfF0l6Yg-Xy3nf98aDFne21WnHLXF0rWsEK/s320/Top+Portable+Heaters+Available.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;">All portable heaters for indoor use is electricity. Heaters using other types of fuel must be connected to ventilation ducts so that they can not be moved. One of the benefits of purchasing an electric heater is that it can be placed in areas with an electrical outlet. Some models are designed to imitate wood stoves and combustion heaters. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">There are several ways an electric heater can dissipate heat. Many have fans to blow air over hot coils and out into space. They are good at providing heat for the entire room at once. Other radiate heat from the device in the direction it faces. The user has to stay close to this type of water heater because the heat is concentrated in a small area. This form of heating is best suited to garages or other spaces that are too big to heat, but needs some heat. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Some models have additional features designed to help keep the room warm or extend functionality. Many people use thermostats that allow the user to control the amount of heat emitted by heating. Special units that already have ventilation systems provide air-filtering options. This feature can prevent the stove from burning dust or hair that collects in broadband. This also cleans the air as it warms and leaves the room smelling fresh. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">When you choose a space heater, safety is most important. Many models have safety mechanisms that prevent burns and fires. A tip-over switch detects when the space heater has been overthrown and automatically turns it off. Similar switches can cool the coils when touched or cut power to the entire plant when it gets covered with something. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><u>The Best Portable Heaters</u> <o:p></o:p></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">A good portable heater does not have all the opportunities that exist above, but it may be wise to make a list of the most coveted opportunities before making a decision. There are plenty of quality space heaters on the market, so take your time to narrow the field before you go shopping. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Homeowners who are looking for a large water heater should look at a model as DeLonghi Safe Heat. At about $ 200, it also provides heat a larger area without space-consuming. The offsets have safety equipment and splash resistance for use in the bathroom. The heater is capable of heating your room, while reducing your electricity bills. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Oven like Newair AH-510E Electric Fireplace Heater off the same price and give warmth, but adds the charm of a fireplace. This model has a timer and coils glow like little flames. Although perhaps not as portable as some other electrical options, a fireplace heater to be moved more easily than ventilated stoves. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">For a smaller, cheaper solution, try World Marketing Electric Convection Heater. It heats quickly and provides variable control of temperature and fan. It also has a tripping switch. This little heater even come under $ 30. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Those who wish to add an attractive but expensive heater to their homes should consider Honeywell HZ519 Digital Low Profile Silent Comfort Heater. It is a long, slim device that sits low to the ground and silently warms the room. It has a digital thermostat, a timer that allows for automatic switching off, and more safety. At $ 1,000, this unit has virtually everything you could wish for in a radiator. </div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Although these ovens have different prices and options, they can all participate comfortably warm any room during the winter. The best part is that they all are completely portable, so they can be moved from one room to another. Just remember never to leave them on and unattended.</div></div></div>nidhin with youhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05193232493654918975noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3419907712518764991.post-32248354415416818142011-11-20T07:31:00.000-08:002011-11-20T07:31:03.128-08:00BAGLESS VACUUM CLEANER<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><strong>BAGLESS VACUUM CLEANER</strong><br />
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One of the most common problems in maintaining a vacuum cleaner is to ensure that its end is in the best conditions. Often this leads to consumers to replace their vacuum bags more often than not. This is a good reason to make the transition to a bagless vacuum cleaner. It requires less maintenance and is apparently more effective than one requiring a bag. Here is a baglesss vacuum cleaner review a few models from differe<br />
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><u><strong>Bissell Power Force Bagless Upright</strong> <o:p></o:p></u></div><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;"></div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiyk4ffqBp6n0UOm5aUz_417jxzjMdY-AaVMDqv31jx5OcZB2XhhhJurASzWtg5FbVuD-x30gGjIrcWIJyfkgSg3pNcUA442AW5ubFFSv2CERWiW6Au5Nr4ihGsZ9VbpEJEXDWIPx0QOVa4/s1600/Bagless+Vacuum+Cleaner+Review.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="313" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiyk4ffqBp6n0UOm5aUz_417jxzjMdY-AaVMDqv31jx5OcZB2XhhhJurASzWtg5FbVuD-x30gGjIrcWIJyfkgSg3pNcUA442AW5ubFFSv2CERWiW6Au5Nr4ihGsZ9VbpEJEXDWIPx0QOVa4/s320/Bagless+Vacuum+Cleaner+Review.jpg" width="320" /></a> Although canister vacuum cleaners are more popular these days, the upright models still may find that entering the market and in consumers' homes. After all, still upright models are very useful, and now that they come in a bagless version, they have just become even more important to have around the house. The Bissell Powerforce is inexpensive and is special because there are features that are only really ever found on more expensive models. With a large dirt container instead of a bag, this gives the bagless vacuum cleaner to collect more dirt and hair out of carpets. The container is also very easy to remove in order to dispose of the dirt, much like throwing rubbish from a rubbish bin in a dump truck. Cleaning is a minor chord against bags, because you can give the container a quick wash and have it on the road almost in an instant. <br />
nt manufacturers<br />
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<b><u>Phantom Fury</u> <o:p></o:p></b><br />
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<div style="text-align: justify;">It seems that the bagless vacuum cleaners are becoming more popular in those days. Take Phantom Fury, for example. It is an excellent vacuum cleaner that is extremely easy and, like most other upright bagless vacuum cleaners, you'll find the dirt vessel right on top of the cleaning head. This makes it even easier to move around the house. With the clear cans, you could see all the dirt collected from the carpet and various floor surfaces. And when the bottle is filled, it is easily emptied, again, like emptying a dustbin. The Fury also comes with a long lasting HEPA filter and is recommended for those allergic to dust particles. </div><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;"><b><u>Why do the Switch </u></b><b><u>?</u> <o:p></o:p></b></div><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">This bagless vacuum cleaner review insists that you make the change. While it is true that consumers have become accustomed to the original design of a vacuum with a bag, the error is that they will end up spending more because they need to change these bags like they are full. A bagless vacuum vessel only be emptied out and then can be used again. Furthermore, a vacuum that uses bags most likely be clogged with all sorts of dirt and hair it picks up. This will require more maintenance by the consumer, while a bagless vacuum cleaner would save the consumer lots of time. It seems that the bagless variety (with their strong suction mode) itself could leave your floors and carpets even cleaner than their bagged counterparts. </div></div>nidhin with youhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05193232493654918975noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3419907712518764991.post-3197802958938001312011-11-19T23:34:00.000-08:002011-11-19T23:36:48.170-08:003D CREATION<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><strong>3D ON ROAD</strong><br />
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</div>nidhin with youhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05193232493654918975noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3419907712518764991.post-44148740459374103782011-11-19T22:47:00.000-08:002011-11-19T22:47:00.847-08:00ultrasonic motor's steps in engineering<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><strong>FUTURE ENGINEERING</strong><br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhNBuOWh905szPa99v_BiEqJtzQrwUWlk1QIFNjwEY9sX9t_CNUevrdJaKX6cefl14jJFjHcJxaeFhAaQyFdZ_4LoX2bmaJynZQ6DpiI2whjBSKBoW2IGT76Oyly_tDOonmzSwGkzRpSed7/s1600/G.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="190" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhNBuOWh905szPa99v_BiEqJtzQrwUWlk1QIFNjwEY9sX9t_CNUevrdJaKX6cefl14jJFjHcJxaeFhAaQyFdZ_4LoX2bmaJynZQ6DpiI2whjBSKBoW2IGT76Oyly_tDOonmzSwGkzRpSed7/s200/G.jpg" width="200" /></a><span style="line-height: 200%;">In office equipment such as printers and floppy disk drives, market research indicates that tiny motors smaller than 1 cm3 would be in large demand over the next ten years. However, using the conventional electromagnetic motor structure, it is rather difficult to produce a motor with sufficient energy efficiency. Piezoelectric ultrasonic motors, whose efficiency is insensitive to size, are superior in the mm-size motor area. There is today a large variety designs exploiting motion obtainable from the inverse piezoelectric effect. Ultrasonic piezomotors have a very special place among such devices .These motors achieve high speed and drive forces, while still permitting the moving part to be positioned with very high accuracy. Such characteristics make these motors of great interest for many</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7e05fXbDVg1m4-PWPTOBXNbsBHcYJ5iRH_PijsYCrOgy0cAsMuEmwtiTdHXtKF6f9389OUbZxhkDdIIFN8Ror3B-17n2dmS1DJ2kEAbb5gtIA2mcfL96st2m0DFOIVGWpRSi-hTNEvjwF/s1600/F.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="155" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7e05fXbDVg1m4-PWPTOBXNbsBHcYJ5iRH_PijsYCrOgy0cAsMuEmwtiTdHXtKF6f9389OUbZxhkDdIIFN8Ror3B-17n2dmS1DJ2kEAbb5gtIA2mcfL96st2m0DFOIVGWpRSi-hTNEvjwF/s200/F.jpg" width="200" /></a><span style="line-height: 200%;">companies who make precision devices for which these drives are, in many cases, irreplaceable.</span></div></div>nidhin with youhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05193232493654918975noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3419907712518764991.post-89920941340825478072011-11-19T22:06:00.000-08:002011-11-19T22:06:32.304-08:00MERITS AND DEMERITS OF ULTRASONIC MOTOR<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><strong>MERITS AND DEMERITS</strong> <br />
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0.2in 4pt 1.25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><strong><strong></strong><u>Merits</u></strong></span></div><ul style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; text-align: left;"><strong> </strong>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span><span style="font-size: x-small; line-height: 200%;"><strong>Low speed and high torque - direct drive</strong></span></li>
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<li><strong><span style="font-size: x-small; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-size: x-small; line-height: 200%;">Quick response, wide velocity range, hard brake and no backlash: excellent controllability; fine position resolution.</span><span style="font-size: x-small; line-height: 200%;"> </span></strong></li>
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<li><strong><span style="font-size: x-small; line-height: 200%;">High power/weight ratio and high efficiency.</span><span style="font-size: x-small; line-height: 200%;"> </span></strong></li>
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<li><strong><span style="font-size: x-small; line-height: 200%;">Quiet drive.</span><span style="font-size: x-small; line-height: 200%;"> </span></strong></li>
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<li><strong><span style="font-size: x-small; line-height: 200%;">Compact size and light weight.</span><span style="font-size: x-small; line-height: 200%;"> </span></strong></li>
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<li><strong><span style="font-size: x-small; line-height: 200%;">Simple structure and easy production process.</span><span style="font-size: x-small; line-height: 200%;"> </span></strong></li>
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<li><strong><span style="font-size: x-small; line-height: 200%;">Negligible effect from external magnetic or radioactive fields, and also no generation of these fields.</span> </strong></li>
</ul><strong> </strong><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: normal; margin: 4pt 0.2in 6pt 1.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><strong><u>Demerits</u></strong></span></div><strong> </strong><br />
<ul style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; text-align: left;"><strong> </strong>
<li><strong><span style="font-size: x-small;">Necessity for a high frequency power supply.</span><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></strong></li>
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<li><strong><span style="font-size: x-small;">Less durability due to frictional drive.</span> </strong></li>
</ul><strong> </strong><br />
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</div></div>nidhin with youhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05193232493654918975noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3419907712518764991.post-23571379680467990962011-11-19T21:56:00.000-08:002011-11-19T21:56:36.974-08:00WORKING PRINCIPLE OF ULTRASONIC MOTOR.<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><strong>PRINCIPLE OF WORKING</strong><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi3iX0_rrn49wLtmOMfT6HE1ANEMUoMLAVxseu71h0P6S6sfF-B5HxXh5SKyn3UJq50crHSlYnJtEZiuhsrTvlsVSEYyl6OOmeZy77_7sj6aKubrlTzujvyteQ4EnfIESeRMxfvTsJJz0r1/s1600/Yosi_Ultrasonic_Motor1_browse.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi3iX0_rrn49wLtmOMfT6HE1ANEMUoMLAVxseu71h0P6S6sfF-B5HxXh5SKyn3UJq50crHSlYnJtEZiuhsrTvlsVSEYyl6OOmeZy77_7sj6aKubrlTzujvyteQ4EnfIESeRMxfvTsJJz0r1/s1600/Yosi_Ultrasonic_Motor1_browse.jpg" /></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">The working principle of Ultrasonic motor is shown in figure. High order curling vibration is generated on the surface of the elastic vibrator (stator) and travelling eaves are made by excitation of the piezoceramic vibrator. And the certain pressure causes the slider to propagate on stator </span>by the friction between them. Driving force of Ultrasonic motor is obtained by travelling-wave type elastic curling wave. This type of motor is named as travelling wave type Ultrasonic motor. For generating elastic curling wave on the elastic annular plate, adhere the piezoceramic vibrator beneath the annular plate and exploit the expanding and contracting wave. That is piezoceramic vibrator beneath the elastic annular plate is polarized and when AC voltage is applied to the vibrator, sectional expanding and contracting move occurs and elastic curling waves are generated on the elastic annular plate</span></div>nidhin with youhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05193232493654918975noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3419907712518764991.post-27479121931948580222011-11-19T21:39:00.000-08:002011-11-19T21:39:39.072-08:00ROBOTIC HAND DRIVEN BY ULTRASONIC MOTOR<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%;"><strong>ROBOTIC HAND DRIVEN BY ULTRASONIC MOTOR</strong></span><br />
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<span style="color: black; line-height: 200%;"> Five fingered robot hand driven by 20 ultrasonic motors. Each finger has five degrees of freedom. The size is about the same as that of human hands. As ultrasonic motor has characteristics such as rapid response, large torque and silence, it is adequate for robot hand. Speed of fingers is faster than that of humans. So this hand is adequate for use in master-slave system for remote control in the medical and extreme environment. Now researches aiming to construct a master-slave system to show the applicability of our hand to dexterous manipulation</span></div>nidhin with youhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05193232493654918975noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3419907712518764991.post-13142417469243800802011-11-18T04:49:00.000-08:002011-11-18T04:49:41.188-08:00PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLER<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><strong><span style="font-size: large;">PLC</span></strong><br />
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #666666; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRt6GKN2Aa0TBZU5rwoQhf_NB8WAVQn30iSm342Rss06PT3_JVIJc7Aqw98Gj-K0Hop2eVbsyiOiJYVfbQEVVaIJgO5dxXUE2dKwIP1eZbdl0RPnaoT0HjvnJ62gABJ-dmOmmvf5XqNOg/s1600/YorDesk.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" closure_uid_wepawh="3" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRt6GKN2Aa0TBZU5rwoQhf_NB8WAVQn30iSm342Rss06PT3_JVIJc7Aqw98Gj-K0Hop2eVbsyiOiJYVfbQEVVaIJgO5dxXUE2dKwIP1eZbdl0RPnaoT0HjvnJ62gABJ-dmOmmvf5XqNOg/s320/YorDesk.jpg" width="320" /></a></span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Controlled engineering has evolved over a long period of time. in the Past human were the controlling device for a system. More recently electricity has been used for control and the early control is done by the help of electrical relays. The relays allow the supply can switched ON and OFF electrically without out a mechanical switch. Nowadays relays are common to make simple logical control decisions. The development of low cost computes discovers the most recent control system, Programmable Logic Controller (PLC).The advent of PLC began in the 1970’s.Today PLC is most common for controlling processes.</span></span></div><br />
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #666666; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> The PLC is used as a standard in the field of automation for control. It replaces earlier relay controls and taken over many additional functions.</span></span></div><br />
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #666666; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">The PLC is designed by a computer to operate in industrial environment and arranged with special input, output and a control programming language for use in machine.</span></span></div><br />
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #666666; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> The PLC is designed to controlling a system, but it is finding many and more complex applications. The structure of PLC<span> </span>and computer architecture are constructing based on the same principles, so the relay performing not only the relay switching but also counting ,processing ,calculating and comparing of analog signals.</span></span></div><br />
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #666666; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgSlfEaWZDd06-tvThnWoQ3F7IBL5Eckzqbe2qZ9L9qbzpY-uQImdNEKzFBisVKBYhr7nRCdJijCfPYF0hgd-p9lvCLwGt6ogY_eBGIXCWa-5jYmmM-Iv22wTtaGqQgXd-nxPSrMpGALBE/s1600/Yor+Desk.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" closure_uid_wepawh="4" height="211" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgSlfEaWZDd06-tvThnWoQ3F7IBL5Eckzqbe2qZ9L9qbzpY-uQImdNEKzFBisVKBYhr7nRCdJijCfPYF0hgd-p9lvCLwGt6ogY_eBGIXCWa-5jYmmM-Iv22wTtaGqQgXd-nxPSrMpGALBE/s320/Yor+Desk.jpg" width="320" /></a></span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> PLC is a microprocessor based computer, which is user friendly and performs control functions of different types and of different levels of complexy. A PC can be used as PLC with input sensing devices such as push button , switches ,.etc; input according some conditions. A program is needed to process Input and the PLC turn ON and OFF load devices by means of Ladder Diagram. It essential to draw a Ladder Diagram of controlling of devices with laptop or PC. The drawing is converted into computer language and runs as user rogram</span></span></div></span></div>nidhin with youhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05193232493654918975noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3419907712518764991.post-51684096640348969222011-11-18T04:40:00.000-08:002011-11-18T04:40:44.660-08:00BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PLC<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><strong>BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PLC SYSTEM</strong><br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBWLBrhBVXsT675l2H79AGizru0juv31HdSgv3YtH1MPSUltGK0L8uD4i6crEFydRr6OIuqHyexzWLOiLQ1eIoYR0P3HdQPaVZT9BhH-H8aWEjHMtksJGaOjrA7Fkg6eLQA9wLiLIkA8OX/s1600/PLC+Block+diagram.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="235" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBWLBrhBVXsT675l2H79AGizru0juv31HdSgv3YtH1MPSUltGK0L8uD4i6crEFydRr6OIuqHyexzWLOiLQ1eIoYR0P3HdQPaVZT9BhH-H8aWEjHMtksJGaOjrA7Fkg6eLQA9wLiLIkA8OX/s400/PLC+Block+diagram.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><br />
<div style="color: #666666; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span> </div><div style="color: #666666; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span> </div><div style="color: #666666; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span> </div><div style="color: #666666; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span> </div><div style="color: #666666; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span> </div><div style="color: #666666; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span> </div><div style="color: #666666; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"> </div><div style="color: #666666; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span> </div><div style="color: #666666; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span> </div><div style="color: #666666; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span> </div><div style="color: #666666; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span> </div><div style="color: #666666; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span> </div><div style="color: #666666; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Simplified Block Diagram of a PLC system. It contain main parts:</span></div><br />
<ul style="color: #666666; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; text-align: left;"><li><span style="font-size: x-small;"> CPU(Central Processing Unit) </span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;">Input sensing devices</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;">Input interfaces</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;">Output interfaces</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;">Programmer/Monitor</span></li>
</ul></div>nidhin with youhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05193232493654918975noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3419907712518764991.post-23762551129248970222011-11-18T04:30:00.000-08:002011-11-18T04:44:14.053-08:00PLC<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><strong>LADDER DIAGRAM</strong></span><br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXY8A67enV8gTSDbRlB8BJ8wn_qf4mZ-1ca3-1hvNSnrbrQm7w8ztuimO4-IafbdVspZwINXn2fEmGA6TIGX_c_5l03KHmAlub8RAP81jVp9urLjz2eqqlfOTA3S1SegdVCU43e6QgZx0/s1600/YorDesk.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" closure_uid_i1b1mm="3" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXY8A67enV8gTSDbRlB8BJ8wn_qf4mZ-1ca3-1hvNSnrbrQm7w8ztuimO4-IafbdVspZwINXn2fEmGA6TIGX_c_5l03KHmAlub8RAP81jVp9urLjz2eqqlfOTA3S1SegdVCU43e6QgZx0/s320/YorDesk.png" style="cursor: move;" unselectable="on" width="320" /></a><br />
Ladder Logic language is a PLC programming language, means by which the user communicate information to PLC. Appearance of the Ladder Logic Language designed as a wired relay system, so it termed as a Graphical Programming Language. It is a symbolic set instruction used to create the controller program (representation of contacts and coils are the basic symbols of the ladder diagram). The corrective arrangement of these symbols made possible to create a desired control logic that is to be entered into the memory of the PLC. Ladder program prepared for a specific function is composed of symbols of contacts and coils and it is also called <i>contact symbology</i> .The Ladder Program controls the output based on input conditions. The control is done according to what is is referred by the ladder rung and the rung is consist of set of input conditions, represented by the contact symbols, at the end of rung output is represented by the coil symbols .Each contacts and coils are represents with an address number and which identifies what is being evaluated and controlled.<br />
<img height="72" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXY8A67enV8gTSDbRlB8BJ8wn_qf4mZ-1ca3-1hvNSnrbrQm7w8ztuimO4-IafbdVspZwINXn2fEmGA6TIGX_c_5l03KHmAlub8RAP81jVp9urLjz2eqqlfOTA3S1SegdVCU43e6QgZx0/s320/YorDesk.png" style="filter: alpha(opacity=30); left: 512px; opacity: 0.3; position: absolute; top: 89px;" width="96" /></div>nidhin with youhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05193232493654918975noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3419907712518764991.post-65663113193959344912011-11-18T03:50:00.000-08:002011-11-18T03:50:24.856-08:00SPEED CONTROL OF MOTOR<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div style="text-align: left;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEim8aF6kVawYjX3MJF63SG7v5Ps2qgPZUnKGn90UlroyOV70kSvGbO-YAnNKCWjyNwmOexa1NFgkCKLKt7JGe_VVsS6pq5VY6gURKBQ_sRbZ9fJyYIAHimY_E9VCFr47HJjAvYIEW3Ydeyz/s1600/GFD.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="215" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEim8aF6kVawYjX3MJF63SG7v5Ps2qgPZUnKGn90UlroyOV70kSvGbO-YAnNKCWjyNwmOexa1NFgkCKLKt7JGe_VVsS6pq5VY6gURKBQ_sRbZ9fJyYIAHimY_E9VCFr47HJjAvYIEW3Ydeyz/s320/GFD.PNG" width="320" /></a><strong>SPEED CONTROL OF SERIES MOTOR</strong></div><div style="text-align: left;"><br />
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</div><div style="text-align: left;"><strong><span><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;">The automatic speed control of a series motor to a constant is done by automatic adjustment of triggering angle at various loads using feedback signal which is proportional to the actual speed of the motor. The feedback signal can be obtained using tachogenerator or from the back emf produced across the armature.</span></span></strong></div><strong><div style="text-align: left;"> </div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhVH4FXpsf5vYki3cCOBMUzuVR00H9KafkGPIIQ_EZbH_oJqgmMowYYfq59Oga71JQCMkIU4Yy6Oab1UOlZnLL0RvXcaIxtnqL4ZrQFzoyRZr1RkukbmemWLSf2Mz2_BshvcH-RC1wisHGq/s1600/GFDFH.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhVH4FXpsf5vYki3cCOBMUzuVR00H9KafkGPIIQ_EZbH_oJqgmMowYYfq59Oga71JQCMkIU4Yy6Oab1UOlZnLL0RvXcaIxtnqL4ZrQFzoyRZr1RkukbmemWLSf2Mz2_BshvcH-RC1wisHGq/s1600/GFDFH.PNG" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;">It can be run both DC and AC input, speed control of a universal motor can also possible using this circuit.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"> </div><div style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqSJCaRQCxLoita6IMNcpsvPzvoK2Ptr32pYrzz01lBli4W1zGhy8DNaTjweWIKsXOPfc97luKyRvmf2Ye6qm_LfzM7OVKdSaGsOSRGEJSoE6Zi4zlHQeECU53ttFCzkMy2jAnADZnGQc/s1600/wave+form.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" closure_uid_r1o7f9="4" height="235" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqSJCaRQCxLoita6IMNcpsvPzvoK2Ptr32pYrzz01lBli4W1zGhy8DNaTjweWIKsXOPfc97luKyRvmf2Ye6qm_LfzM7OVKdSaGsOSRGEJSoE6Zi4zlHQeECU53ttFCzkMy2jAnADZnGQc/s320/wave+form.jpg" width="320" /></a></span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;"> Capacitor ‘C’ charges through Resistance ‘</span><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;">R1' and variable resistance ‘</span><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;">Rv’ </span><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;">during +ve half cycle. When capacitor voltage become ‘</span><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;">Vc’</span><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;"> (equal to Break over voltage of diac </span><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;">‘</span><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;">VBO</span><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;"> + back emf ‘</span><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;">Eb’ of the armature),SCR gets triggered. Now the motor current flows through the series field, conducting SCR, and armature of the motor. The speed of the motor can be controlled by varying the charging time of the capacitor and which can be done by varying variable resistance ‘</span><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;">Rv’</span><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;">. When the SCR is not conducting the armature current is due to residual magnetism and is approximately proportional to the speed. Diode D is used to avoid –ve excursions of capacitor voltage.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;">If the load increased, it will tends to slow down the motor. Reduced speed results reduction and lower value of back emf ‘</span><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;">Eb’.The increased difference between ‘</span><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;">Eb’ and ‘</span><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;">Vc’ will trigger the SCR earlier than before in next positive half cycle. ‘</span><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;">VBO’is constant and back emf </span><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;">‘</span><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;">Eb’ decreased, the capacitor takes less time to reach</span><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;"> ‘</span><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;">VBO+Eb</span><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;">’,there for SCR triggers earlier. As a result the voltage across the armature increased and motor retain the preset value speed. If the speed rises because of some decreasing of load,the triggering angle will automatically advance and bring down the speed to preset value.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;">In series motor drive, the current flows through the armature and field when the SCR is triggered at an angle ‘</span><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;">alpha’.The current continues beyond ‘</span><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;">omega*t=pai</span><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;">’until the stored energy of the armature is dissipated. The armature voltage is –ve for some time beyond ‘</span><span style="line-height: 115%; position: relative; top: 7pt;"></span></span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;">omega*t=pai</span></span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #595959; line-height: 115%;">’.</span></span></div></strong><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"></div></div>nidhin with youhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05193232493654918975noreply@blogger.com0